Part A--FROM INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS

ARTICLES ON DIALOGUE

The Internet provides asynchronous interaction via e-mail, bulletin boards, and computer conferencing, and it provides synchronous interaction via chatting or real-time conferencing. In addition, virtual simulation activities, such as online seminars, virtual field trips, and virtual experiments are possible on the Web. Moore defines dialogue as the extent to which learners and instructors interact with each other. In Internet-based education, several different types of interaction, besides that between learners and instructors, have been observed. Interpersonal interaction among learners and social integration were among the most influential factors. Fourteen articles dealt with this dialogue issue as their main discussion focus.

A number of studies that examined socially oriented factors in Internet-based learning indicate that learners feelings or perceptions of being a socially integrated part of a virtual community or of having a sense of human contact in the network are much more important in this environment than in other distance education areas. All of these findings indicate, directly or indirectly, the emergence of various online learning communities affecting dialogue in Internet-based education.

Anderson, S. E., and J. B. Harris. 1997. Factors associated with amount of use and benefits obtained by users of an Educational Telecomputing Network. Educational Technology Research and Development 45 (1): 19-50.

This study identifies the factors that best predict the amount of use and the perceived outcome of an Internet-based, statewide educational network in Texas called TENET. These factors were obtained through a large-scale e-mail survey of a randomly selected sample of the network users. The survey measured 5 categories of variables: personal attributes, environmental characteristics, perceived media characteristics, usage, and gratification obtained. Statistical analyses of the survey data found that a variety of factors from several categories contributed to the prediction, of network use and the various types of gratification obtained from such use. The study found that 28% of the groups future network use could be predicted by four variables&emdashinterpersonal contacts via the network, social integration, initial training, and perceived utility&emdashwhereas 46% of the networks variety of uses could be predicted by seven variables&emdashinterpersonal contacts via the network, social integration, ease of use, equipment access, ongoing assistance, network experience, and professional gratification. About 45% of the perceived professional outcomes could be predicted by variables such as reading newsgroup messages, sending e-mail messages, social integration and social presence. The study identifies that socially oriented factors contributed to the prediction of both network uses and outcomes, and it notes the importance of implementing strategies to promote social interaction among users and to enhance perceptions of a network's social presence.

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Andrusyszyn, M. A., and L. Davie. 1997. Facilitating reflection through interactive journal writing in an online graduate course: a qualitative study. Journal of Distance Education 12(1/2): 103-126.

This qualitative research article attempts to examine the way in which interactive, online journal writing that is integrated into the design of computer-conferencing courses is used to facilitate reflection. At the beginning of the paper, the authors provide extensive review of the literature on reflection, journal writing, and computer conferencing. They studied 161 journal entries written by 5 students, 42 instructor responses, and online interviews. The results of these analyses reveal that interactive, online journal writing served as a means of communication and conversation with the personal, professional, and academic self and with the instructor. It also served as a vehicle for synthesizing or making theoretical links with learning, as a means of dialogue with the instructor, and thus, as an effective strategy to facilitate student reflection. The clarification of the "reflection" is made as the result of this study.

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Barab, S. A., B. E. Bowdish, and K. A. Lawless. 1997. Hypermedia navigation: Profiles of hypermedia users. Educational Technology Research and Development 45(3): 23-41.

This study explores the use of log files in distinguishing between groups of individuals demonstrating various types of navigational performance in an open-ended, non-directive environment, such as hypermedia systems, and in determining whether navigational performance results from the interaction of individuals and types of task. Four types of navigational performance in a hypermedia learning environment were identified: model users who are motivated to solve problems, cyber cartographers who are motivated to explore cyberspace, feature explorers who appear to be motivated to find movies, and disenchanted volunteers who are motivated to stop using the hypermedia. Interactions between these characterizations and information-retrieval scores, self-efficacy, perceived utility, interest, and types of tasks are discussed in the study.

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Bullen, M. 1998. Participation and critical thinking in online university distance education. Journal of Distance Education 13 (2): 1-32.

This case study investigates the potential of computer conferencing to facilitate critical thinking using both quantitative and qualitative data obtained from students in a university computer-conferencing course. Although all students contributed to the online discussion, all used at least a minimal level of critical thinking, and many of them viewed the course as a more interactive and participatory experience than other face-to-face courses, this computer-conferencing course was found to not be an example of the new online learning paradigm. These findings suggest that active participation facilitating critical thinking is affected by a number of factors: students' characteristics, the context in which computer conferencing is implemented, course design, instructor interventions and facilitation, and content characteristics. Getting computer conferencing to work in an ideal way is not a simple task, and it requires the adequate preparation of the students, as well as the instructors.

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Gunawardena, C.N. & Zittle, F.J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 11(3), 8-26.

This paper examines the effectiveness of social presence_the degree to which a person is perceived as real in a mediated communication environment_as a predictor of overall learner satisfaction in a computer-mediated conferencing system. Extensive analyses of previous studies on social presence theory are provided at the beginning of the paper. The study also provides construct validity and internal consistency of the instrument that was used. Containing 61 items, the study measures social presence, active participation in the conference, attitude toward computer-mediated communication, barriers to participation, confidence, perception of having equal opportunity to participate in the conference, adequate training, technical skills and experience using the conferencing equipment, and overall satisfaction. The results reveal that social presence contributes about 60% of learner satisfaction with computer-conferencing courses. It is suggested that design strategies enhancing social presence need to be integrated in computer-mediated learning environments.

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Kanuka, H. & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and knowledge construction. Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 57-74.

Here, the author investigates a computer-mediated conference (the forum) that was designed to create a professional development space and an online community. Transcripts from the forum were analyzed using a constructivist interaction analysis model of Gunawardena, Lowe, and Anderson and grounded theory data analysis methods. The results of transcript analysis indicate that most of the online interactions during the computer conferencing were at the lower phases of the interaction analysis model. The authors note that the participants might be processing information internally in a reflective manner but not sharing these thoughts with others. The results of observation of social-cognitive processes among participants in the online forum show that the processes usually included significant time engaged in social interchange leading to knowledge construction process. The conclusions of this paper include suggestions for improving the interaction analysis tool and ideas far future research.

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McDonald, J. & Gibson, C.C. (1998). Interpersonal dynamics and group development in computer conferencing. American Journal of Distance Education, 12(1), 7-25.

This paper analyzes interpersonal interactions in asynchronous, computer-conferencing learning environments and identifies predictable patterns of group development within a computer-mediated course. The authors do this by using a tool they developed that is based on previous studies. To achieve these study objectives, communication messages from three time periods in a selected course were coded as speech segments, and each segment was analyzed in terms of 5 variables: author, audience, relationship, function, and interpersonal. If the speech segment was interpreted to be interpersonal, it was further classified as to the intent of the speech. Five categories of intent in the interpersonal messages were used in the classification: involvement, control, openness, solidarity, and conflict. It is found that the interpersonal patterns among people in computer conferencing are similar to those in face-to-face groups. Interpersonal issues remain prominent (45%_75%) throughout the course, although they become less important over time. Involvement and control issues diminish in importance as participants find their place in an online group, and solidarity and openness issues become evident. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications for future research and practice.

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Moller, L. (1998). Designing communities of learners for asynchronous distance education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 46(4), 115-122.

This is an argument of the importance of forming learning communities within the context of asynchronous distance education, especially for employee training. Three types of learning communities are described: the academic community, which evolves from interactions between the learners and information facilitators, such as teachers, content experts, or trained tutors; the intellectual community, which is provided through peer interactions and opportunities for sharing ideas and knowledge; and the interpersonal community, which is developed through interpersonal encouragement and assistance. It is argued in this paper that learning communities can provide social reinforcement, increase information exchanges and interactions, and thus, improve learning effectiveness in asynchronous distance education.

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Murphy, K.L. & Collins, M.P. (1997). Development of communication conventions in instructional electronic chats. Journal of Distance Education, 12(1/2), 177-200.

This paper attempts to identify communication conventions in real-time, interactive instructional electronic chats (IECs) and to examine whether IEC users recognize a need to use these conventions to communicate clearly with others. IECs are thought to be a means of creating a sense of communicative immediacy and presence that is often lacking in asynchronous electronic communication environments. The findings report that IEC users developed communication conventions, such as sharing information, indicating interest in a topic, typing a keyword to convey meaning, using shorthand abbreviation, questioning and seeking clarification, and establishing various forms of social presence. In addition, IEC users recognized a need to use a variety of these conventions to reduce transactional distance in computer-mediated educational transactions.

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Phillips, M., Scott, P. & Fage, J. (1998). Towards a strategy for the use of new technology in student guidance and support. Open Learning, 13(2), 52-57.

This paper discusses an integrative strategy for the use of interactive multimedia and the Internet to present the British Open University to its prospective students and to develop course choices and study planning activities. The strategy is developed using the perspective of student guidance and support as well as integrated communicative features of new media such as e-mail and conferencing.

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Reeve, F. Gallacher, J. Mayes, T. (1998). Can new technology remove barriers to work-based learning? Open Learning, 13(3), 18-26.

This paper explores the possibilities of using new technologies, such as the Web, for work-based learning. The general model described in this paper includes the use of communication technologies to promote the creation of learning dialogues. The authors state that value of new technologies is the ability to promote learning dialogues among working professionals. It is argued that more and better forms of communication can be provided using new technologies, and thus, they can contribute to effective work-based learning. Besides the educational advantages of these technologies, several constraints in the areas of access, expanded learning boundaries, changing roles of people involved, and costs are indicated.

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Thorpe, M. (1998). Assessment and third generation distance education. Distance Education, 19(2), 265-286.

This author sees the communication of knowledge and social interaction as the main features of new technologies that will bring about the creation of a third generation in distance education. As a way of incorporating constructivist pedagogy into the online learning process, collaborative assessments using CMC components in an introductory information technology course are presented. It is noted that the educational benefits of the technological applications using CMC, such as collaborative assessments, depend on the effectiveness of the course design in which they are implemented and on the social context.

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Salmon, G. (1999). Computer mediated conferencing in large scale management education. Open Learning, 14(2), 34-43.

This paper introduces the British Open University Business Schools more to incorporate computer-mediated communication (CMC) into its curriculum. Different communication patterns that emerged from the CMC-incorporated environment are reported and strategies for the effective use of CMC in distance education are explored. Recognizing the importance of tutor training for CMC, the author presents a structured and supportive approach to training tutors online and to building an online tutoring community. The author concludes with the argument that CMC is an effective collaborative application of information and communication technology for large-scale distance education.