Part A--FROM INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS

ARTICLES ON LEARNER AUTONOMY OR COLLABORATION

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Five papers focused on the issue of learner autonomy or collaboration, but several of the papers categorized under " Articles on Structural Features" or " Articles on Dialogue" discussed this issue as well. Moore argued that "instructional programs differ in the degree to which they can accommodate the autonomous learner" (1972, 81). In this light, distance programs can be classified in terms of what degree of learning autonomy learners have. Internet-based education seems to provide individualized learning environments that allow learners to exercise autonomy in their learning. Garrison (1997) perceived computer conferencing as a personalized technology, as opposed to a mass-produced, self-instructional package.

Several studies reported that adult learners in Internet-based education extensively used metacognitive strategies in their learning and that learners in this type of education employed iterative, embedded, and instantaneous information-seeking strategies. Students' prior knowledge of technology and the subject also played an important role in Web-based learning. In several courses, authors observed, learners being autonomous individuals constructed their own knowledge and were involved actively in their learning. All of these results indicate that learners in Internet-based education use certain cognitive strategies or knowledge to exercise learning autonomy, there by maximizing their own learning and constructing new knowledge. In addition to autonomous learning, collaborative learning also appeared in the literature.

Garrison, D.R. (1997). Computer conferencing: the post-industrial age of distance education. Open Learning, 12(2), 3-11.

In this paper, computer conferencing is seen as the most feasible and effective technology in providing personalized and collaborative distance education. Also, it is thought as a method for achieving the ideals of a collaborative, constructivist approach to distance education. This new approach to distance education is contrasted with the industrial approach to help readers understand the significance of two-way computer conferencing. The author strongly argues that collaborative, constructivist approaches to distance education will replace the mass-produced, self-instructional course packages of the industrial era and that computer conferencing is the prefect medium for this purpose.

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Hill, J. R. & Hannafin, M. (1997). Cognitive strategies and learning from the World Wide Web. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(4), 37-64.

This paper identifies the cognitive strategies used by adult learners in a Web-based learning environment. Thorough qualitative analyses of the research data reveal that (1) metacognitive knowledge appears to the be most influential strategy for the system use, (2) perceived user orientation (e.g., reported feelings of being lost) influences the searching strategies, (3) perceived self-efficacy affects both the number and types of strategies used, and (4) the level of prior system knowledge has a stronger influence on the strategies employed than does prior subject knowledge. This study provides several recommendations for WBI designers, such as reducing perceived disorientation, providing searching tips, promoting metacognitive strategies, and providing learning support.

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Hill, J. R. (1999). A conceptual framework for understanding information seeking in open-ended information systems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(1), 5-28.

This author attempts to present a conceptual framework for how users engage in the information-seeking process and to develop certain strategies for open-ended information systems, such as the Internet. The proposed conceptual model for the information-seeking process in such a system includes five information-seeking phases from start to resolution: purposeful thinking, acting, system responding, evaluation, and transformation and integration. The paper then describes, within the framework of the proposed model, the processes and strategies that learners employ during the information-searching activity. It is found that the information-seeking process is "iterative," "embedded," and mostly "instantaneous," It is also argued that the characteristics of users affect which information-seeking strategies they will employ. The conclusion contains an insightful discussion of the design issues and research areas that should be considered in the future.

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Naidu, S. (1997). Collaborative reflective practice: an instructional design architecture for the Internet. Distance Education,18(2), 257-283.

In this article, the author outlines the design principles of a graduated program offered on the Internet and, then, evaluates them. Based on Kolb's learning cycle, an Internet course with five different topics has been developed. For each topic, learners follow a common pattern of study that comprises experiencing, reflecting, conceptualizing, and applying the learning concepts. During their studies, learners are encouraged to actively participate in computer conferencing and chatting. A detailed development process and an outline of the design strategies used for the Internet course are presented in the paper. It seems that this course is developed in a way that makes the most use of Internet capabilities. A positive evaluation result is reported at the end of the paper.

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Shneiderman, B. Borkowski, E. Y., Alavi, M. & Norman, K. (1998). Emergent patterns of teaching/learning in electronic classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 46(4), 23-42.

This paper reports on the emerging patterns of teaching and learning in electronic classrooms at the university level. The Internet is used as a component in electronic classrooms. Enhanced lectures, active individual learning, small-group collaborative learning, and large-group collaborative learning are identified as being novel patterns by using faculty surveys, internal paper analyses, feedback from instructors and administrators, and students surveys. In electronic classrooms, faculty members tend to adopt more student-centered instructional strategies, such as encouraging student involvement in discussions and sharing ideas.