Part A--FROM INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS

ARTICLES ON STRUCTURAL FEATURES

The structure of a distance education program is a sum of its teaching elements. As previously stated, "structure," in the transactional distance theory, refers to the extent to which an educational program is responsive or adaptive to learners' individual needs. Highly structured programs provide predetermined objectives, teaching strategies, and evaluation methods for learners.

There were twenty-two journal articles that focused on the structural aspects of Internet-based education. Some of them discussed dialogue and/or learner issues as well. There was a high level of agreement between the various studies that Internet-based education provides a flexible teaching and learning environment. The structural flexibility of this method of education seems to be linked, directly or indirectly, to the expandable feature of contents; the adaptive generation of individualized content according to the learner's goals, previous knowledge, or other characteristics; and visual interface or screen design.

Adelskold, G., et al. 1999. Problem-based distance learning of energy issues via computer network. Distance Education 20 (1): 129-143.

The paper reports a development project on problem-based learning (PBL) in a distance course on energy issues via a computer network. A course adopting a teaching method to PBL is designed to solve five energy problems through online group discussions and individual learning. Specific strategies for the design of the course and the results of an ongoing evaluation performed during the course are provided in the paper. The main results of the evaluation show that teachers cannot be independent in time because of the necessity for frequent logs-on and regular feedback. While space independence has been accomplished and international collaboration has been possible in solving energy problems via the network, the initial face-to-face meeting was very helpful for the rest of the distance education course. Moreover, rapid responses from both instructors and peers are of great value for motivating students' participation in online communication, and the experience of personal closeness to the other students in the group during collaboration is gradually increased during the course. It is concluded that the students worked successfully in groups using computer communication.

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Barron, A. 1998. Designing web-based training. British Journal of Educational Technology 29 (4): 355-370.

Viewing the Web as a worldwide, efficient, and inexpensive technology for delivering instruction, the author outlines three design options for Web-based training (WBT): page-based, frame-based, and screen-based WBT. Specific guidelines for the design of WBT are reviewed with two case studies, and a list of example sites that offer free access to WBT courses and information is provided.

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Bates, A. W., and J. G. Escamilla de los Santos. 1997. Crossing boundaries: Making global distance education a reality. Journal of Distance Education 12 (1/2): 49-66.

This paper describes an international partnership between The University of British Columbia in Canada and the Monterrey Institute of Technology for Mexico in the development and delivery of five courses (at a master's level in educational technology) in technology-based distributed learning. Course design strategies, technology options, course implementation, and financial arrangements of this partnership project are described in detail. The paper concludes with the lessons learned from this partnership experience. Organizational and bureaucratic issues are indicated as the biggest barriers.

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Collis, B. 1999. Designing for differences: Cultural issues in the design of WWW-based course-support sites. British Journal of Educational Technology 30 (3): 201-216.

As more higher education institutions create Web-based learning environments to attract diverse groups of students from many different places, even all over the world, it is becoming increasingly important to design Web-based course-support sites that are adaptable to diverse learner populations and different types of cultures. This paper identifies culture-related variables affecting the use of Web-based course-support sites; analyses dimensions sensitive to culture-related differences in terms of acceptance, use and impact of computer-related learning resources; and provides ten design guidelines for culture-related flexibility in Web-based course-support sites with an example of practice in the Netherlands. It is emphasized in the conclusion part of the paper that institutions and instructors will have to not only improve their insights into the cultural diversities that affect education, but also accommodate cultural differences in the design of educational environments by operationalizing the insights into manageable ways.

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Garland, I., and L. M. Naugle. 1997. A university dance course in cyberspace: The telelearning experience. Journal of Distance Education 12 (1/2): 257-269.

The authors present the development and implementation of a totally online course that explores the use of computer technology as a tool for analyzing and recreating human body movement. Software tools, including the Virtual-U, as well as the design principles and pedagogical strategies of the course are described in detail. Positive comments from students and instructors are cited, and educational benefits of teaching dance in virtual space are also reported. From their experiences, the authors suggest a need to reconsider policies, copyright, violation of privacy, economic security, and content when creating a virtual course.

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Hall, D. 1997. Computer mediated communication in post-compulsory teacher education. Open Learning 12 (3): 54-56.

This short article reports the key finding from a report on the pilot test of the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in postcompulsory teacher education in the UK. Besides advantages of CMC in distance education that have been discussed in other studies, this paper also indicates that CMC works better with more cognitive, theoretical units, as opposed to competence-oriented and reflective units.

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Hillman, D. C. A. 1999. A new method for analyzing patterns of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education 13 (2): 37-47.

This is a case study that examines a method for analyzing patterns of interaction in face-to-face and asynchronous computer-conferencing classrooms and compares them. The analyses of all spoken and written discourses are performed by sentence using software and a coding system developed by the author. The results of the analyses reveal that the interaction patterns of computer-mediated courses are close to those of discussions whereas the patterns of face-to-face courses are similar to those of recitations. The results also reveal that students' involvement is higher in computer-conferencing courses than that in face-to-face courses. Future research questions are provided at the end of the paper.

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Jonassen, D., T. Prevish, D. Christy, and E. Stavrulaki. 1999. Learning to solve problems on the Web: aggregate planning in a business management course. Distance Education 20 (1): 49-63.

This paper presents a model and an example of how to design Web-based learning environments to support students solving authentic, ill-structured problems by an adopting constructivist paradigm. Five integrated components of the model for designing constructivist learning environments&emdashproblem/project space, related cases, information resources, cognitive tools, and collaborative tools,&emdashare explained in detail, including definition of each component, its educational benefits, and, implementation strategies for the Web. Applying this model, a Web-based site on aggregate planning in an operations management course was created and evaluated with students. The results of the evaluation indicate that the students were challenged and liked instantly being able to see the results of their activities. The authors conclude with the remark that the Web is an excellent technology for adopting case studies to integrate higher-order learning in large distance education courses.

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Joo, J. 1999. Cultural issues of the Internet in classrooms. British Journal of Educational Technology 30 (3): 245-250.

This paper discusses some cultural issues that the rapid and broad diffusion of the Internet has brought to our classrooms, and it explores ways of promoting the better understanding of cultural differences using the Internet with illustrations of education projects using the Internet to help students discover differences and similarities between cultures. With an acknowledgment of two major phenomena that the Internet has introduced to classroom, that is, the openness of classrooms and of the world, the author investigates specific cultural aspects, including equality of access, direction of information exchange and communication, changing roles of teachers and students, and mutual respect for different cultures and languages. As a conclusion, the author warns educators to perceive the Internet as an educational innovation that has introduced cultural changes to teaching and learning, not just as a technological improvement that has broken down barriers of time and space in education.

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Laffey, J., T. Tupper, D. Musser, and J. Wedman. 1998. A computer-mediated support system for project-based learning. Educational Technology Research and Development 46 (1): 73-86.

Here, a computer-mediated learning support system on the Internet called "Project-Based Learning Support System" (PBLSS) as an effective tool to provide 1) "intelligent support both for the processes of doing a project and 2) a shared dynamic knowledge base for working and learning in a community supporting project-based education." The paper argues that a computer-mediated learning support system on the Internet can create a learning environment suitable for project-based learning by providing ample resources, allowing students to do their own planning, presenting new forms of knowledge, expanding mechanisms for collaboration and communication, and supporting reflection and authentic assessment. Based on the findings from the PBLSS implementations, future directions are suggested.

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Limbach, R., H. G. Weges, and M. M. A. Valcke. 1997. Adapting the delivery of learning materials to student preferences: Two studies with a course model based on 'cases'. Distance Education 18 (1): 24-43.

Using the ILCE approach that is described in Valcke & Martens (1997), the authors conduct two studies in law content domain to explore a relationship between certain student characteristics and the preference for a specific study mode in print-based and in electronic learning environments. The two study modes are (1): a mode that starts with a theory and moves toward practical work with cases (a theory-based study mode) and (2) a mode that starts with practice work and moves theoretical base (a practice-based study mode). The results of the first study identify that about 75% of The Open University students prefer a theory-based study mode, and this preference seems to be related to having more learning experience with this study mode. The second study shows that, even though the OU students indicate a more diverse preference for certain study modes, in contrast with the first research, there is a greater preference for the theory-based study mode in a print-based learning environment, mainly due to the greater experience and prior knowledge students have with this approach. This article clearly indicates that it is desirable to consider student variables when designing distance learning environments in order to provide students with the possibility of opting for a specific study mode and delivery mode.

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Lundin, R. 1998. Being unreal: Epistemology, ontology, and phenomenology in a virtual educational world. The American Journal of Distance Education 12 (3): 53-65.

The author of this paper examines the issues surrounding what is true and what is real in the virtual world of the Internet adopting the concept of the "World Brain/World Mind" put forward by H. G. Wells in 1938. The author also discusses the possibilities of new electronic technologies providing flexible and open education. It is indicated that educators must address the issues of using the Internet to promote education in an authentic and real manner and of developing the information literacy skills of the learners in order to help them determine the authenticity, reliability, and quality of information provided in the virtual world.

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Martens, R. L., et al. 1997. Research with interactive learning environments in three content domains: Descriptive statistics, continuous mathematics and substantive criminal law. Distance Education 18 (1): 44-58.

This paper reports the results of using interactive learning environment (ILCE) in three different content areas and then compares them with the results of print-based distance courses and conventional classroom courses. The authors found that students see the interactive electronic learning environment as being suitable for study. In addition, students who studied electronic materials have more positive attitudes towards computers and are more experienced. The article concludes with a discussion of the limitations of the current study and suggestions for improvements on the ILCE approach.

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McGreal, R. 1997. Information technology and telecommunications: A course on the WWW. Journal of Distance Education 12 (1/2): 67-84.

This is a report on a Canadian, interprovincial collaborative project that is designed to provide educational professionals with the opportunity to study a thirty-hour Web-based course, "Introduction to Informational Technology and Telecommunications." This project has promoted collaborative course development, resource sharing, and credit acceptance among the four provinces involved. The standards for instructional design, pedagogical considerations, visual interfaces, and navigation that were set up for this project can be used in the development of Web-based courses in other contexts.

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McLoughlin, C. 1999. Culturally responsive technology use: Developing an on-line community of learners. British Journal of Educational Technol