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EDITORIAL

In the late 1980s we witnessed a flourishing growth of
distance education courses taught via computer conferencing. Most
of them attempted to replicate traditional teaching in a new
medium, with little innovative use of the technology. Ideally,
however, what we should expect is a paradigm change in distance
education pedagogy, based on the opportunity to conduct asynchro-
nous group communication. Some early articles discuss the peda-
gogical opportunities of computer conferencing (Davie 1989,
McCreary 1987, Harasim 1991, Eisley 1991), but still much experi-
mentation and research remains to be done. This literature review
compiles some evidence for a future paradigm change, and addi-
tional sources indicate that there are more innovative and
remarkable courses available.

INNOVATIVE COMPUTER CONFERENCING COURSES

By Morten Flate Paulsen

This article describes and discusses the following innovative
examples of computer conferencing in teaching:

- The International Business Negotiation Simulation Course
(University of Maryland), in which the term "virtual synchronous
communication" was coined.

- The Introduction to Information Technology Course (British Open
University), which enrolled more than 1,200 students.

- The Management Practices Course (New Jersey Institute of Tech-
nology), which integrated a Management Game with computer confer-
encing.

- The Living on Purpose course (Awakening Technology), which used
computer conferencing to provide a safe and supportive environ-
ment for human relations.

- Roleplays, programming courses, and online multiple choice
database (NKI Electronic College), which present experiences from
Norway.

- Debate, audio conferencing, and online examination.

The following is an interpretation of these examples, based
primarily on descriptive papers. I have, however, met all authors
personally and have heard their presentations of the courses, so
this article may be influenced by their personalities and en-
thusiasm, as well.

THE INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATION SIMULATION COURSE

The following description is taken from James Rawson's
(1990) paper "The International Business Negotiation Simulations
(IBNS)." The IBNS course was developed jointly by The University
of Maryland, University College and The University of Maryland,
College Park. The simulations consist of three half-day work-
shops, each of which uses a computer-managed, text-based, tele-
conferencing-based simulation to teach business executives how to
negotiate successfully in a specific cross-cultural business
environment.
The IBNS setting comprises five nodes: 1) the U.S. company
negotiation team, at a U.S. site; 2) the overseas company negoti-
ation team, located in the overseas country specified by the
simulation; 3) the U.S. company headquarters; 4) the overseas
company headquarters; and 5) the simulation manager.
Timing and stress are often important factors in negoti-
ation. Traditional asynchronous conferencing can hardly provide a
trustworthy simulation of these important negotiation factors. To
ensure that these aspects of negotiation are addressed, the IBNS
course uses "virtual synchronous" computer conferencing. The
information is technically stored and retrieved as in traditional
asynchronous conferencing, but the interactivity approaches
synchronous conferencing, because the participants are present at
scheduled hours and are urged to respond quickly.
OPPORTUNITIES. Computer conferencing has three important
features that are especially valuable for this course. First and
foremost, every piece of information entered into the system is
stored, so both learners and instructors can review and analyze
the negotiation process during and after the negotiations.
Second, carefully designed access control allows the four in-
volved groups (two negotiation teams and two headquarters) to
hold private conferences. The course instructor may, however,
access all conferences, and by such access monitor progress and
provide useful instruction. Finally, use of computer conferencing
may be less expensive than other international, group-communi-
cation alternatives (such as audio- and video-conferencing).
OBSTACLES. Computer conferencing lacks many non-verbal cues
that are valuable in face-to-face negotiation. Clues to the
negotiators' emotions and personality are omitted. To overcome
this obstacle, IBNS is based on role-plays in which each partici-
pant's role and personality traits are described in a curriculum
vitae. Further, computer conferencing printouts lack the distinc-
tive professional character of business correspondence. IBNS
will, though, provide the learners with some start-up handouts
furnished with letterheads, logos, etc. to make the course more
realistic.
The use of technology may distract the negotiation teams
from the core content of the course. For this reason, IBNS
provide each team with a trained conferencing system expert to
handle the technology. He or she speeds up the conferencing
process and lets the team concentrate on the course work.
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN THE COURSE DESIGN. Some cross-cul-
tural differences may be hard to learn without face-to-face
experience. Video-conferencing or video tapes may be viable
alternatives for addressing some of these issues.

THE INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY COURSE

Robin Mason, in Mindweave, describes this course as being
comprised of a print component of seven blocks of material; a
course reader; audio and broadcast media; and supplementary
materials . She states: "... in addition to these standard
presentation media, this course is one of the first to require
all students and tutors to have an IBM compatible micro computer
in order to gain practical experience of the social and techno-
logical issues discussed in the written material. Four software
packages are introduced on the course, some commercial, some
specially developed at the OU: word processing, database manage-
ment, spreadsheet analysis and communications. Altogether, this
practical component of the course comprises 20% of the work, and
the communications element is, therefore, a very small part of
the whole." (Mason and Kaye 1989, 115)
OPPORTUNITIES. The medium provided an opportunity for
increased communication between students, tutors, and course
team; and also, the OU design staff was more accessible to tutors
and students than in traditional OU courses. "The primary value
of the medium was the opportunity it provided for increased
communication:students found it helped overcome the isolation of
distance learning and made them feel part of an educational
community; tutors were able to give direct feedback to the
central staff and to take part in decisions about course presen-
tation; the course team were for the first time in contact with
the "consumers" of their course, expanding on course themes,
answering queries and coping directly with criticism and praise
from students." (Mason 1990a, 57)
Further, computer conferencing allowed tutors to co-teach
and take turns moderating conferences. Since all comments were
stored, the tutors could easily catch up with prior activity.
OBSTACLES. The cost of telephone charges to students was a
major inhibiting factor in increasing the role of computer
conferencing in the course. A particular problem was the unequal
charges across the country. Establishment of a national network
with local dial-in nodes would solve the problem and give the
students inexpensive and equal access to the OU system.
Technical problems and inexperience in organizing a confe-
rencing system for a large number of students resulted in chaotic
system management. Such chaos could have been anticipated, and it
is difficult to understand how anyone would dare to launch such a
huge project without any experience from smaller pilot projects.
Once an OU course is designed, it is hard to alter it
significantly. Course evolution based on increased experience
with computer conferencing is therefore difficult. Such institu-
tional constraints negate one of the main advantages of computer
conferencing in distance education: the opportunity to swiftly
adapt the course to current events and information. The OU course
design model rules out this opportunity.
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN THE COURSE DESIGN. OU can be
viewed as a very bureaucratic organization where improvements
take considerable time to implement. The following suggestions
may have been considered, but have not yet been implemented.
Computer conferencing was not the primary communication
medium in this course. Most of the assignments were submitted by
"snail mail." A much better solution would have been to let the
students submit all assignments via the conferencing system.
Computer Conferencing was a minor part of this course. Just 10 of
400--far too few--study hours were apportioned to computer confe-
rencing (Mason 1990a, 57). Computer conferencing should be
integrated as a major part of several related courses.
Robin Mason mentions that the course team is working on a
number of "value added" services, such as making optional assign-
ments, consisting of group discussion as well as previous years'
work available online (Mason 1990b, 272). It is surprising to
hear these options mentioned as "value added" service, because it
should be among the basic services provided in computer conferen-
cing courses. Value added services in distance education computer
conferencing should include: online libraries, documentation
centres, multiple choice databases, computer aided instruction,
accounting systems, grading systems, logistics systems, etc.

THE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES COURSE

This course, as described by Enrico Hsu (1990), integrated a
Business Simulation Game with computer conferencing in a Manage-
ment Practices course. The students were divided into six groups
of four students. Each group represented a company, and each
student was assigned a role as CEO, Financial Officer, Operations
Chief, or Marketing Executive. These companies competed against
each other in a Business Simulation Game through three phases of
the companies' life cycles (start-up, growth, and independence).
The game simulated nine years during nine weeks of the course.
Each year, the students "employed" in each company established
crucial input data such as: price, advertising, purchase, produc-
tion, size of sales force, etc. The data were submitted to the
instructor, who compiled it and executed the game. This process
resulted in a set of output data for each company, consisting of
units sold, back orders, market share, operating income, income
tax, net income, etc. The companies were evaluated based on the
final results after nine years.
Each company was assigned a private conference in which the
employees could discuss the simulation input and output data. In
another conference, called Managers' Corner, the students could
participate in management-related discussions.
OPPORTUNITIES. The conferencing system allows the instructor
to monitor the decision-making processes in each company and to
give appropriate feedback to the students. Further, the students
have a unique opportunity to review "earlier years" arguments and
to check them against the actual outcome of the simulation. The
output data from the simulations were available to all students
immediately after the instructor uploaded them.
OBSTACLES. The problem of decision-making is not discussed
in the article. Experience shows, however, that asynchronous
decision-making in groups is extremely difficult. A synchronous
medium, such as telephone or face-to-face meeting, is suggested
when decision making is crucial.
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN THE COURSE DESIGN. Enrico Hsu's
own suggestion (personal communication, 1990) that the employees
evaluate the performance of their colleagues in the roles of CEO,
Financial Officer, etc. represents a valuable improvement to the
course.

THE LIVING ON PURPOSE COURSE

Peter and Trudy Johnson-Lenz have based their workshops on
the philosophy: "Computer-mediated meetings are potential islands
of safety, but safety is created by people, not technology. It
occurs when people take the risk to express themselves, trust,
and respect each other. However, while technology cannot create
safety, it can support it. Groupware can join human potential and
supportive technology into a creative whole." (Johnson-Lenz 1990,
304)
This course description appeared in the May 1990 - Summer
Program of the Awaken Virtual Learning Community: "In collabor-
ation with Chinook Learning Center (Whidbey Island, WA), we offer
a month-long workshop, Living on Purpose. It includes self-dis-
covery exercises and group sharing. Living on purpose is dis-
covering what really matters to you and finding the courage to
live it. It's a continuing, creative process, full of challenges,
choices, and fulfilment."
OPPORTUNITIES. The participants... "sign a covenant with
each other to "create a safe, supportive, and vital learning
community together." We agree to keep each other's items confi-
dential, participate regularly, and inform our group when we are
absent for whatever reason. We also agree to accept and be
patient with the parts of ourselves and others that are not yet
clear, to listen with care and compassion to each other, to speak
our truth as well as we can, and to remember and acknowledge
everyone's personal wholeness and connection with the Mystery."
(Johnson-Lenz 1990, 312)
The participants must answer--in the conferencing system---
questions like: "What is important in your life?" and "What do
you think of yourself?" It is obvious that the participants must
scrutinize their lifestyles when they share their answers--in
writing--with the group. Many people will find it less frighten-
ing to share their inner feelings and thoughts via computer
conferencing than face-to-face. In this way, technology may
facilitate valuable human relations between people who feel
comfortable with the medium.
Peter and Trudy Johnson-Lenz have designed (and trademarked)
a Virtual Circle that they claim is useful in some settings. "A
talking stick" which represents permission to speak is passed
around a circle. Each person speaks his truth in turn while
everyone else listens with respect. The Virtual Circle concept
encourages everyone to express opinions and avoid reticence.
OBSTACLES. Many people will perceive the technology in this
course to be ill-placed. In Megatrends for instance, Naisbitt
(1984, 51) wrote about high tech--high touch: "The more high
technology around us, the more the need for human touch." In
Naisbitt's description these are opposite qualities. Peter and
Trudy Lenz will, though, use high tech (computer conferencing) to
facilitate high touch (quality human relations). Each approach
appeals to separate groups of people, so courses like "Living on
Purpose" probably will draw many participants in the future.
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN THE COURSE DESIGN. Input from
psychologists on this course, and their participation in course
design and instruction, would be valuable.

OTHER INNOVATIVE COMPUTER CONFERENCING COURSES

The following courses are, so far, not well documented in
English. The intention is not to present a complete review of
these courses. However, a brief overview may provide some useful
ideas for future courses.
Roleplays, programming courses, and online multiple choice
database. The following examples are from the NKI Electronic
College in Norway. They are described by Paulsen (1989), Paulsen
and Rekkedal (1990), and Paulsen and Soeby (1990). In the Fall
1988 Monica Johanessen taught an Information Systems course via
the EKKO conferencing system. In a conference, she presented a
case and assigned each student a role. The case described a
company planning to invest in a new computer-based office automa-
tion system. The students were assigned roles as users, account-
ing officer, project manager, labour union representative, etc.
Over a period of about fourteen days the students were expected
to elucidate the different facets of this project, as reflected
through the different roles.
Ragnar Boersum has taught programming courses every semester
since the Fall of 1988. In the Pascal course, the students
programmed in Turbo Pascal on their home microcomputer. The
program source code was posted to the instructor or shared with
the other students in the conferencing system. In this way the
teacher and the students could download the programs, change them
if they desired, and execute them on their local computers.
In the Cobol course he experimented with letting the stu-
dents access the host computer's Cobol compiler. This was bother-
some, but it worked. The important lesson was, however, that
distant students can access host computer applications such as
compilers, database systems, statistics software, etc.
Henny Lindland used the EKKO online multiple choice database
as a part of the Introduction to Computer Science course, for the
first time in the Fall 1989. The students could download a number
of multiple choice questions, spend some time to figure out the
answers, and then upload their suggestions and let the database
score them.
Debate. Chris Clark organized an electronic debate about war
protestors and freedom of speech in February 1991 as a part of
the "What's in the News Telecomputing Project" (Clark in press).
In his Electronic Debate Handbook, which was included in the
course material, he says: "The debate centres on a proposition
which states the issue to be discussed. The affirmative side
supports the proposition and the negative challenges the affirm-
ative. The object of the debate is to see which of the teams can
do a better job of presenting the case. Before the debate,
neither team knows which position it will be assigned, so each
must learn as much as it can about both points of view." The
Debate Handbook also includes rules and a schedule.
International audio and computer teleconferencing. Professor
Michael G. Moore taught "International and Comparative Adult
Education" at Pennsylvania State University in the 1991 Spring
semester. Students in four cities in Pennsylvania communicated
with guest experts in seven telephone conferences. The guest
experts participated from England, Eastern Germany, Finland,
Canada, China, India, and Spain. Some guest experts were willing
to communicate with the students via Internet to follow up the
telephone conference. The computer communication was an optional
experiment and not an integral part of the course. However, the
combination of telephone conferencing and computer conferencing
is an innovative way to communicate with international guest
experts in a course.
Online examination. External examiners, faculty and, per-
haps, co-students could participate in a 2-3 day online examin-
ation period. The students could prepare a hard copy or upload
the examination paper to their challengers some time before the
online examination starts. During the examination period, the
challengers are expected to post questions about the examination
paper which the students must answer in a plenary conference. The
advantage of this compared with a traditional oral examination is
that both questioners and answerers have more time to contemplate
than in a hectic, one-hour face-to-face examination. The online
examination is, of course, much more interactive than is a
traditional written examination.

CONCLUSION

This paper illustrates some ideas of computer conferencing's
potential in future distance education pedagogy and course
design. There are three core features in computer conferencing
which are utilized successfully in all courses.
First, interactive group communication is used as a means to
create collaborative learning. As we have seen, this is made
possible through negotiation teams, co-teaching, role-play, and
islands of safety. This list can be extended with project work,
study circles, seminars, and workshops. The opportunities for
collaborative learning are abundant.
Second, conferences are divided into separate usergroups,
giving instructors a unique opportunity to monitor and provide
instructions to each group. In this way, educators can set up
competing teams as in the business simulation game and the
negotiation course.
Third, all communication can be recorded and reviewed,
allowing students to participate independent of time, to check
information presented earlier in a course, and to review the
learning process. In this way, for example, the negotiators can
scrutinize their negotiation process and the employees can
analyze their priorities in the business simulation game.
Despite the development of several encouraging examples of
innovative computer conferencing courses, course design and
pedagogy still is an underdeveloped field. My modest hope is that
this paper will trigger some innovative design of future distance
education courses.

REFERENCES

Clark, G. C. In press. War Protestors and Freedom of Speech: An
Electronic Debate.

Davie, L. 1989. Facilitation techniques for the on-line tutor. In
Mindweave: Communications, Computers, and Distance Education,
eds. R. Mason and A. Kaye, 74-85. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Eisley, M. 1991. How to conduct good discussions on-line. Paper
presented at the conference Applications of Computer Conferencing
to Teacher Education and Human Resource Development, June 13-15
at the Ohio State University.

Harasim, L. 1991. Computer Conferencing for Teacher Education.
Paper presented at the conference Applications of Computer
Conferencing to Teacher Education and Human Resource Development,
June 13-15 at the Ohio State University.

Hsu, E. 1990. Running Management Game in a Computer Mediated
Conferencing System: A Case of Collaborative Learning, a proceed-
ings paper in The Third Guelph Symposium on Computer Mediated
Communications. Guelph.

Johnson-Lenz, P. and T. 1990. Islands of Safety for Unlocking
Human Potential, a proceedings paper in The Third Guelph Sympo-
sium on Computer Mediated Communications. Guelph.

Mason, R and A. Kaye. 1989. Mindweave: Communications, Computers,
and Distance Education, Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Mason, R. 1990a. Conferencing for Mass Distance Education,a
proceedings paper in The Third Guelph Symposium on Computer
Mediated Communications. Guelph.

Mason, R. 1990b. Refining the Use of Computer Conferencing in
Distance Education. Distance Education: Development and Access,
ICDE.

McCreary, E. K. and J. Van Duren. 1987. Educational Applications
of Computer Conferencing. Canadian Journal of Educational Com-
munication 16(2):107-115.

Naisbitt, J. 1984. Megatrends. New York: Warner Books.

Paulsen, M.F. 1989. En virtuell skole. Del II. Erfaringer med
EKKO prosjektet. Oslo: NKI

Paulsen, M.F. and Rekkedal, T. 1990. Den elektroniske hoegskolen.
EKKO prosjektet, Del II. Oslo: NKI

Paulsen, M.F. and Soeby, M. (Red.) 1990. Datakonferanser og
fjernundervisning. Oslo: Sefu

Rawson, J.H. 1990. Real-Time Computer Conferencing for Distance
Education, an article in Distance Education: Development and
Access, ICDE.

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