DEOSNEWS Vol. 2  No. 20.  ISSN 1062-9416.
Copyright 1992 DEOS - The Distance Education Online Symposium
   
Editor: Morten Flate Paulsen, MORTEN@NKI.NO
Guest Editor: Margaret A. Koble
   
DEOS was established with a grant from the Annenberg/CPB Project.
   
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EDITORIAL
   
This issue of DEOSNEWS contains abstracts of research monographs
published by The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
(ACSDE). This Research Monograph Series is published in conformity
with ACSDE's mission of promoting distance education research, study,
scholarship, and teaching and serving as a clearinghouse for the
dissemination of knowledge about distance education. It complements the
comprehensive scope of The American Journal of Distance Education by
providing a forum for articles of a more technical or specialized nature.
     Included are the abstracts of these monographs:
   
A Survey of State-level Involvement in Distance Education at the
Elementary and Secondary Levels
   
Distance Education Symposium: Selected Papers, Part 1
   
International Perspectives on Distance Education Research
   
Computer-mediated Communication for Distance Education:
an International Review of Design, Teaching and Institutional Issues
   
>From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities:
Distance Education, Computer-mediated Communication, and Online Education
   
For information on ordering these publications, contact the Center:
   
via e-mail:  MAK10@PSUVM.PSU.EDU
   
via postal services:
   The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
   Penn State University
   403 South Allen Street, Suite 206
   University Park, PA  16801-5202
   U.S.A.
   
Tel:  814/863-3764          FAX:  814/865-5878
   
   
   
             ABSTRACTS FROM ACSDE'S RESEARCH MONOGRAPH SERIES
               ACSDE Research Monograph Numbers 3 through 7
   
Author(s):  Richard England
Title:  A SURVEY OF STATE-LEVEL INVOLVEMENT IN DISTANCE
EDUCATION AT THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEVELS
ACSDE Research Monograph No. 3
Publ:  The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
Pub. Yr.:  1991
Pages:  34
Many state and local school systems use technology to address the
problems of access to quality instruction and inequities in funding of
education. These problems as well as expected shortages of teachers in
specialized fields, such as foreign languages, mathematics, and the
sciences, will require innovative educational approaches like distance
education. A survey of chief state school officers in the United States
was conducted in 1990 regarding state-level involvement in distance
education and teacher certification issues. Eighty percent of the states
responded and the results provide an overview of their distance education
activities. The questions and responses of the states are presented in
an appendix.
    Responses to the survey show a high interest in distance education:
90% of the states are involved in the use of telecommunications to provide
education, and their current or planned involvement is through state
networking and/or regional and national consortia. Most states recognize
the need for funding to develop distance education systems, and survey
responses might suggest a national trend; states anticipate funding
through special legislation, and they believe distance education systems
provide viable solutions to their problems.
  Related to the use of technology for instruction is the certification of
the teleteacher whose course may originate in one state and be received
in another state. Teacher certification requirements vary from state to
state, and colleges and universities may also make changes in their
requirements. These certification issues increase in complexity when
technology is used to deliver education. 85% of the states do not
require special certification for distance education teachers. However,
many states accept credits earned through distance education
formats for graduate teacher education courses and for in-service
teacher education. States do differ in their acceptance of credits earned
through distance education for certification, recertification and
provisional certification for out-of-state teachers. The responses
indicate the struggle states face in addressing these issues.
  While the survey may raise more questions that it answers, it indicates
not only the level of involvement by state school systems in the use of
technology but their awareness of the opportunities that exist through
distance education.
   
   
Author(s):  Michael F. Beaudoin, Connie Dillon and Dana Blanchard,
Chere Campbell Gibson, Andrew Woudstra and Stephen Murgatroyd, and
Stephen J. Wright
Title:  DISTANCE EDUCATION SYMPOSIUM: SELECTED PAPERS, Part 1
ACSDE Research Monograph No. 4
Publ:  The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
Pub. Yr.:  1992
Pages:  71
This publication comprises five discussion papers presented at The Second
American Symposium on Research in Distance Education held at The
Pennsylvania State University in May 1991. The researchers were asked
to review recent developments in distance education research and to
analyze future research needs. An abstract of each paper follows.
   
RESEARCHING PRACTICE AND PRACTICING RESEARCH:
CRITIQUE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION RESEARCH AND WRITING
by Michael F. Beaudoin
    While the documentation of distance education activities continues to
grow, adding new contributions to the research literature is critical to
the further development and definition of the growing field of distance
education. This survey of the literature by Beaudoin, however, reveals
the lack of research in some areas where there is a strong need.
Descriptive and prescriptive articles outnumber empirical studies, and
most often the "so-called" research in distance education is evaluative
or comparative. This trend is similar to the earlier writings in adult
education; distance educators are preoccupied with effective practices
and devote little time to research. Yet, solid research, using sound
methods, is more generalizable to distance education practice, and a
research agenda should address new areas and attempt to answer
questions about learners in the distance education context. Some of the
questions to be answered are: How do students learn? How best do
we teach them? Distance education research should move beyond the
old focus on technology, attrition, and comparing distance education
to traditional methods of instruction. Research in distance education
can guide and enhance practice, and by reflecting on current practices,
research findings can be applied to change approaches. Through
this action and reflection both researchers and practitioners can contri-
bute to the development of a comprehensive theory of distance education.
   
EDUCATION FOR EACH: LEARNER DRIVEN DISTANCE EDUCATION
by Connie Dillon and Dana Blanchard
   Distance education has focused on sophisticated technologies to provide
"education for all" through mass media. Using instructional systems
design to individualize distance education instruction has promise, but
learner support must also be considered in providing "education for each."
This paper reviews and analyzes the literature on learner support and
explores a framework for analyzing the interrelationship between learner
support and two-way communication.
    A search of ERIC documents and major distance education journals
forms the basis for this review. Four categories emerged from the
literature search for analysis: 1) methods of analysis (i.e. descriptions,
essays, research studies, literature reviews), 2) institutional context,
3) type of learner support, and 4) characteristics of learners. The focus
of this review is on learner support. The articles on learner support
were categorized into three related areas: instructional support,
student support, and communications support. The literature on
instructional support is further analyzed according to Moore's three
types of interaction: interaction with teacher, interaction with student,
and interaction with the media. A summary of literature is presented
which examines learner support and learner needs, content needs,
institutional context, and technology.
    Much of the theoretical work in distance education is descriptive and
suggests a discrepancy between the "ideal" and the "reality" of practice.
Several models are presented, the first represents an "ideal" model of
interaction. The second model incorporates the factors of learner
support (learner and content needs, institutional context, and media)
and the interrelationship of interactions. Recommendations are provided
for future research on learner support which may help move distance
education toward learner driven education,  "education for each."
   
CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNERS AND LEARNING AT A DISTANCE:
A REVIEW OF SELECTED RECENT RESEARCH
by Chere Campbell Gibson
    A review of recent research indicates a changing perception of the
learner, from static to dynamic, and a changing perception of successful
learning at a distance. The characteristics of a dynamic learner may
change over time. These characteristics include predisposing character-
istics (educational background, socio-economic status, etc.), life
circumstances, and institutional factors. Predisposing characteristics
and other affective variables such as commitment, confidence,
competence, striving, learning style, etc. affect learner success and
satisfaction. The literature also indicates an increasing interest in how
environmental factors affect the learner: life and study circumstances,
the courses studied, interest and motivation, and student involvement,
While recent studies focus on learner variables, further qualitative
research is needed to understand the complexity of learners and the
learning environment.
    Most of the recent literature on success in distance learning equates
success with measures of satisfaction and completion. Emphasis is
shifting, although slightly, to studies of surface vs. deep learning,
learning strategies, and self-directed learning. Research must begin to
address questions such as how institutions and distance educators
might aid in the development of dynamic learners, preparing them for
the "types of learning required...of the new learning society." As
perceptions of the learner and learning change, many questions arise
that need further exploration. How might institutions facilitate the
growth of a dynamic learner, what instructional designs may enhance
learning, and how do interests and attitudes of the learner change
over time? These questions will challenge researchers and practitioners
in the future.
   
RESPONDING TO CHANGE: DESIGNING A FLEXIBLE LEARNING
ORGANIZATION FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION
by Andrew Woudstra and Stephen Murgatroyd
    A skilled, educated workforce is necessary for a nation to compete
globally, and organizations, including distance education organizations,
must be responsive to the changing requirements of the workforce.
Because of economic changes, governments and educational systems
will be forced to increase efficiency and effectiveness but with fewer
funds for programs and facilities. In order to compete, institutions must
prepare knowledgeable workers, and education for adults will become
both continuous and lifelong. Because distance education organizations
serve adults, they will have to change. This change, however, will
provide opportunities for distance educators to expand their knowledge
and use of technologies to deliver education. Technologies such as
tele-communications and computers can extend the classroom and
increase interaction between teachers and learners.
    As our world changes, new competitive paradigms will develop and
organizations may be required to engage in "upside down thinking."
They must become "learning organizations" in order to compete and
adapt to rapid change. Learning organizations use techniques such as
TQC (Total Quality Control) and KAIZEN (continuous improvement),
which are now being used in some elementary and secondary institutions.
Some components of effective learning organizations include systems
thinking (viewing the whole picture), personal mastery, mental models,
building shared vision, and team learning. These strategies are necessary
in a competitive market and vital to distance education organizations in
developing effective, efficient and flexible means to provide education.
Literature on organizational theory and distance education is sparse. In
the U.S., the majority of distance education units are part of college or
university organizations which react slowly to change. With current
demands for change, how might the university become a learning
organization? The author suggests combining the components of a
learning organization (systems thinking, shared vision, etc.) with
Handy's Triple I organization (Intelligence, Information and Ideas),
an approach which encourages the separate parts of an organization
to work in harmony.
    A systematic approach to designing a flexible distance education
organization includes 1) realizing the need for change, 2) bringing about
reform, 3) empowering teams to achieve goals, 4) keeping teams
informed, and 5) evaluating organizational tasks. A flexible distance
education organization will have a core of knowledge workers (academics,
professionals, staff), a contractual fringe to provide results or products
and a flexible labor force of advisors, tutors, and secretaries who are
available during peak periods. Change is inevitable and distance education
organizations must be prepared to respond to the challenge.
   
RESEARCH ON SELECTED ASPECTS OF LEARNER SUPPORT IN
DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAMMING: A REVIEW
by Stephen J. Wright
    This review of recent research on learner supports reveals "a prepon-
derance of the best studies" being conducted in institutions outside the
United States. U.S. distance education programs, however, can benefit
from application of international research findings, and can replicate the
models already developed. Much of the research has focused on three
aspects of learner support: pre-enrollment activities, tutorial services,
and counseling and advising services. Pre-enrollment support activities
include self-assessment, information dissemination, orientations,
and advice on study techniques. These early stages of interaction are
receiving more attention by distance education institutions. Tutorial
services can be an important factor in reducing student attrition.
In some cases these services are provided through face-to-face contact;
and in other cases through print, telephone, video-, audio- or computer
conferencing, or through radio. Several tutorial interactions that have a
positive affect on completion rates and student satisfaction are academic
content assistance, personal encouragement, and individualized pacing.
Counseling has been identified as important in promoting student success
and course completion, and some institutions have developed effective
programs. However, many others only talk about their plans. Adding to
the problem is the confusion in defining counseling and advising.
Counselors and advisors provide content support and disseminate
information, usually by telephone. There appears to be an increase in
the use of more advanced technologies for these activities. Career
counseling services are seldom available to distance education students.
    On the basis of the review, several areas of focus for future research
are identified: the impact of computer management systems on delivery
of student support services; the importance of career counseling for
distance education students; student support systems at dual-delivery
institutions; and the cost effectiveness of technologies used to provide
student support services.
   
   
Author(s):  Elizabeth J. Burge, Dan O Coldeway, and Borje Holmberg
Title:  INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON DISTANCE EDUCATION
RESEARCH
ACSDE Research Monograph No. 5
Publ:  The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
Pub. Yr.:  1992
Pages:  60
This monograph comprises three papers presented at a preconference
workshop held in conjunction with the 15th World Conference of the
International Council for Distance Education in Venezuela, November
1990. The workshop was titled "Setting a Global Agenda for the Nineties."
   
MARROW BONE THINKING: TOWARD A FAIR REPRESENTATION OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
by Elizabeth J. Burge
   The value of research is to challenge the "prevailing view" and produce
results that provoke, excite, and unsettle. This paper focuses on using
the naturalistic research paradigm to encourage researchers to "think
in a marrow bone." The debate over quantitative research and
qualitative/naturalistic research continues as researchers attempt to
find answers to the complex questions of how humans learn and
what influences their learning. The current research in distance
education is limited in the knowledge it provides and a more interpret-
ative approach to research, the naturalistic paradigm, may add to this
knowledge. The objective of the researcher using the naturalistic
paradigm is to go into the field with an open mind and look holistically
at the context and events in a natural setting and then to describe the
phenomena. This is a profound contrast to the experimental, hypothesis-
testing approach of quantitative research. Researchers who have a
clear understanding of both approaches, however, will know when
to integrate them to take advantage of the strengths of each. The author
offers suggestions for future research using quantitative methodologies
to address questions in distance education.
    The use of qualitative methodologies demands skill and the ability to
move between the student world (data gathering) and the academic
world (analysis and interpretation). The author presents three qualitative
issues to be considered: 1) the "trustworthiness" of qualitative research
(credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability); 2) the
awareness of sex biases in research; and 3) the possibility that predict-
tion and control experiments in the behavioral sciences are unsuccessful
(Cziko suggests that we have only temporary understandings. He bases
this on individual differences of humans, chaos theory, and the
evolutionary character of development and learning). Qualitative
approaches to distance education research might expand our "marrow
bone thinking" and develop research that is more holistic and cumulative.
   
CONCEPTS OF EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY IN DISTANCE EDUCATION:
"A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE"
by Dan O Coldeway
    As a review of the literature suggests, research in distance education
is growing rapidly and many methodologies are available to researchers.
This paper focuses on experimental methods in research on distance edu-
cation. Establishing paradigms for research in a new field is difficult,
and while methodologies used in other fields may be generalizable to
distance education, there are many variables beyond instruction and
learners which are of particular interest to researchers in distance
education. These variables may include such factors as organization,
policy, administration, and finance.
    The author presents a systematic approach to experimental inquiry
in distance education. There are four major components of the model.
The first component relates to the question and/or the problem of the
inquiry. The second part increases the probability of developing an
effective approach for examining the question/problem. It includes
steps to guide the inquiry; internal analysis, review, design and
implementation. The third component of the model relates to quality
control and aids the researcher in considering all of the relevant factors
needed to address the question/problem effectively. The results of the
first three components feed into the theory and empirical base which
then drives three other activities: future distance education design,
improving existing distance education, and the generation of new
questions. Several methods of inquiry suited to distance education
are listed and a few are described in detail: component analysis,
simulation analysis, and systems analysis. Becoming more sensitive
to issues of experimental design and of effective inquiry will benefit
the field of distance education as it continues to evolve.
   
ON EUROPEAN DISTANCE-EDUCATION RESEARCH
by Borje Holmberg
    Contrary to popular belief, much research is available on distance
education. This article focuses on an international survey of research,
and seven different areas of research, which are of particular interest
to the author, are described. Several European surveys provide information
on university distance teaching and about characteristics of institutions;
their teaching principles and the media used by tutoring and counseling.
Other research has attempted to determine the number of distance
education students there are in the world, and what types of students
are most successful, the single factor perhaps being personal motivation.
Another question addressed in the research is student autonomy,
autonomy promoted through individual-centered, group-centered,
and problem-centered learning. Many contributions to research in the
area of communications have also been made. Much of this research
focuses on the impact that frequency of communication and turnaround
times have on learning. Another area that has attracted the attention
of both researchers and practitioners is the use of technology.
    In addition, research on evaluation is gaining attention, and it
provides useful information not only on student achievement but also
on evaluation of distance education systems. Attempts at theory building
and testing hypotheses must continue with the realization that not all
practice in distance education can consistently be guided by predictive
theory.
   
   
Author(s):  Rosalie Wells
Title:  COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION:
AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF DESIGN, TEACHING AND
INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES
ACSDE Research Monograph No. 6
Publ:  The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
Pub. Yr.:  1992
Pages:  69
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is one of the most recent
technological systems being used in distance education. Using computers
and modems, students and instructors can communicate through a
host computer regardless of the time or physical distance separating
them. This review provides a summary of literature on design,
teaching, and institutional issues related to the use of CMC in distance
education. The monograph includes a selected list of organizations
using CMC for both education and communication, as well as an
extensive bibliography.
    The author uses a question and answer format to emphasize the prac-
tical focus of the review and to aid the reader in locating information
quickly. Issues related to designing a CMC course are presented in
Part One. A sample of the questions posed in this section follows.
What course content is appropriate for use in the medium, and how
can CMC be used in a course (i.e., as an option, a replacement, or
primary teaching medium)? Does the use of CMC affect student
participation, and how can students be encouraged to use the medium?
Can group work be supported in the CMC environment? Is there
an appropriate class size for CMC courses?
    Part Two, Teaching Considerations, presents information on
teaching techniques, teaching styles and challenges for instructors
using CMC in distance education. CMC can affect instructional
workloads, which may be heaviest in the first offering of a course.
Workload might be affected by communications, feedback, design,
and computer support responsibilities. In CMC courses, the instructor
may adapt a more facilitative style to moderate discussions and
encourage student participation. Student participation rates are
frequently cited in case studies. However, the quality and quantity
of these exchanges are less important than the content of the messages,
and content is the area which needs further study. In addition to style
of teaching, several instructional techniques are explored. An instructor
may establish data bases of model answers, literature references,
supplemental materials, etc. Special conferences can also be established
to provide feedback on assignments, to post exams, or to discuss
computer problems. Peer tutoring and learning is another technique
used to encourage participation.
    The third part of the monograph discusses institutional issues
related to CMC. The first section addresses the question of access
to computers. Student success in CMC courses depends on convenient
access to a computer. Institutions are advised to gather data on
student access prior to exploring the use of CMC in courses. Since
convenient access is a factor in student success, institutions have the
option to supply computers to students or place computers in local
study centers. Policy decisions on requiring students to own computers
or requiring students to have access to certain configurations of
equipment are also discussed. Additionally, questions related to
computer support are presented. What types of training are required
for students, and how long does it take for students to develop
proficiency? How can institutions provide this training, and what
types of ongoing support is necessary for students during a course?
    The final section of the review provides information on marketing,
policy, and costs of using CMC in courses. A few scattered studies
suggest some reasons students take CMC courses, and these results
may provide information for marketing courses. Several policy
decisions institutions might consider in implementing CMC relate to
1) choosing a host computer system, software, configuration, and
user support; 2) course options; and 3) related instructional staff issues.
Information is presented on costs to institutions and costs to students.
Also discussed is the question of who pays the costs of communication
for CMC courses. At the end of each section of the review, the author
offers suggestions for further research on design, teaching and
institutional issues related to using CMC in distance education.
   
   
Author(s):  Morten Flate Paulsen
Title:  FROM BULLETIN BOARDS TO ELECTRONIC UNIVERSITIES:
DISTANCE EDUCATION, COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION,
AND ONLINE EDUCATION.
ACSDE Research Monograph No. 7
Publ:  The American Center for the Study of Distance Education
Pub. Yr.: 1992
Pages:  67
This monograph presents a collection of separate papers on early
and innovative use of computer-mediated communication (CMC)
in education. The integrating theme is the relationship between this
form of educational delivery and the larger field of distance education.
In Part One, Paulsen draws on his own experiences in "The NKI
Electronic College" and "Teaching Across the Atlantic: The Connected
Education Experience" to trace the development of two pioneering
projects in computer-conference-based distance education. The
description of the NKI experience over a period of five years includes
information on course design, finances, institutional organization,
student achievement, and student and faculty perceptions of
educational quality. "Teaching Across the Atlantic" presents an
in-depth analysis of a single course in relation to Wagner and Gagne's
nine events of learning. The article discusses the professional,
administrative, and social environment created in this course using
CMC and provides suggestions for improvement.
    Part Two provides examples of particular CMC systems, courses,
and strategies. In "Innovative Computer Conferencing Courses,"
examples are discussed in terms of opportunities provided, obstacles
encountered, and suggested improvements in course design.
"Computer-Mediated Communication in Distance Education Around
the World, An Annotated Bibliography" is a selective sampling of
international approaches to computer-mediated distance education.
Included are descriptions of programs in North America; Europe;
Australia and New Zealand; China; Indonesia; and Latin America.
    Part Three comprises reflections on experience, conclusions, and
predictions for the future. "GO MEEC! A Goal-Oriented Method
for the Establishment of an Electronic College" describes a ten-point
systems development approach for establishing a wide array of CMC
systems including electronic colleges, ad hoc courses, and research
networks. Based on the perceived importance of training, support,
motivation of people, and technological progress, this "milestone plan"
has two result paths: one path dealing with people, the other with
technology. The guidelines in the model are designed both to identify
components necessary for the development of an electronic community
and to illuminate potential obstacles to this process. "The Electronic
University" envisions the possible course of development of today's
computer conferencing systems into future electronic universities
capable of handling hundreds of thousands of students. The article
addresses the challenges inherent in this development, provides
examples of institutions having individual characteristics necessary
in such a large-scale operation, and presents a vision of the potential
educational and social benefits to be realized through the
implementation of electronic universities. The final article, "The
Hexagon of Cooperative Freedom," is a first attempt to develop a
theory of distance education attuned specifically to CMC.  Focusing
on the interplay of independence and cooperation within the
dimensions of time, space, pace, medium, access, and curriculum
within distance education contexts, Paulsen argues that computer
conferencing can foster both freedom for the individual and group
cooperation.
    The Foreword and Afterword of the monograph are by Linda Harasim
and Robin Mason, respectively, well known researchers in the field.
   
--------------------- End of DEOSNEWS Vol. 2  No. 20 --------------------
   

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