DEOSNEWS Vol. 2  No. 6.
Copyright 1992 DEOS - The Distance Education Online Symposium
   
Editor: Morten Flate Paulsen, MFP101@PSUVM.PSU.EDU
Review: Philip W. Pinder
   
DEOS was established with a grant from the Annenberg/CPB Project.
   
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                   INFUSING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN
   
                          TELECOURSE INSTRUCTION
   
                                    by
   
                   Toby Klinger, Instructor, Psychology
                                    and
                Michael Connet, Manager, Distance Learning
   
                       Greenville Technical College
                           Post Office Box 5616
                         Greenville, SC 29606-5616
                               (803)250-8363
   
   
Overview
   
At a time when critical thinking has gained acceptance as a fundamental
base from which instruction occurs, educators are facing the double-edged
sword of the use of educational technology. Carefully designed courses
which seek to infuse critical thinking skills must now make the transition
to the electronic medium. As the field of distance learning continues its
growth in constructing the classrooms of the future, so must the process of
teaching these distant learners critical thinking skills. The purpose of
this paper is to frame the question of how these skills can be taught to
this group of learners. The identification of who these telecourse students
are, what special needs in critical thinking they might have as telecourse
learners, and what obstacles may exist in this newly created learning
environment, will be investigated. The process of infusing critical
thinking skills in a psychology telecourse will serve as a case study for
this discussion.
   
   
Recognizing and Understanding the Format of Instruction
   
     Prior to accepting the format of telecourse instruction as a viable
method from which to instruct, faculty and administrators must recognize
the opportunities and options that telecourse instruction provides. At the
same time they need to recognize telecourses' limitations and the differ-
ences from a traditional classroom model of instruction.
     This acceptance process is primarily based on the recognition of who
telecourse students are and their reasons behind seeking this mode of
instruction. Many studies researching these questions have been conducted
and should be examined prior to the adoption of telecourse instruction. The
Corporation for Public Broadcasting/Annenberg Project oversaw such a
research project and subsequently developed a telecourse student profile.
This profile generally identifies telecourse students to be over 26 years
of age, highly motivated, goal oriented, and for whatever the reason,
unable to attend the traditional classroom setting. (Brey, 1988)
     To measure learning effectiveness in telecourses, Coastline Community
College in Fountain Valley California, evaluated student success when
compared with success in traditional classes in the same discipline. Their
findings indicate that these students' performances were equal, and in many
cases superior, to their traditional classroom peers, with one qualifica-
tion: the telecourse student had fit the characteristic profile of who the
telecourse was designed for. (Michael, 1985)
     Consequently, the potential to teach critical learning skills to
telecourse students can be made more effective when considering that these
students are highly motivated and goal oriented, when designing a tele-
course.
   
   
Specific Application
   
     During the recent development and adoption of telecourses at a
community college in South Carolina, there was a unique opportunity to
review other colleges' efforts to offer and administer telecourses with a
focus on how they attempted to teach thinking skills. As a result, the
decision to create an introductory psychology telecourse with a strong
emphasis on the teaching of critical thinking skills, was made. Based on a
combination of existing and originally produced video programs, the faculty
developer integrated materials and concepts generally reserved for the
traditional classroom in a format which allowed the students to develop
problem solving and decision making skills.
     Psychology is an ideal discipline to teach the caveats of critical
thinking. The parameters of the discipline--from its theoretical framework
to its scientific rigorousness, pose a natural environment for a dialogical
and dialectical process to occur. Unless a hypothesis or theory can be
proven using various scientific methodologies, it remains only a tentative
explanation in psychology, and therefore questionable. Overall, the
discipline's content allows for an analysis of assumptions, the examination
of the evidence, the consideration of other interpretations and a tolerance
of the uncertainty of knowledge gained through empirical inquiry. Such
criterion for thinking critically are proposed by various writers (e.g.,
Wade, 1990; Paul, 1991).
     Psychology, like the hard sciences, was founded in the belief that
instruction should be through the study of hard fact. Today, even the hard
sciences question that approach. (Rigden, 1991). Rather, the brilliance of
learning any subject, inclusive of the physical sciences, is in the
discovery process of leading the student to the underlying concepts through
their independent questioning and problem solving (e.gs., Nosich, 1991;
Rigden, 1991).
   
   
Elements of Telecourse Design
   
     In a traditional class, dialogical and dialectical thinking occurs
through both instructor-student interaction and peer interaction. Through
this shared process, feedback becomes immediate; students are made active
and can rather quickly judge their level of understanding (Chickering,
1987).
     However, in telecourse instruction the students and instructor rarely
meet face to face. This makes it more difficult to facilitate feedback
which is considered fundamental to the teaching of critical thinking
skills. When, and if, class discussion (student to faculty; student to
student) occurs in a telecourse, it is generally delayed from the time
questions originally arise.
     Understandably then, telecourses must include a strong element of
interaction. It has been argued that it is viable for telecourses to be
structured for interactions such as between instructor and student as well
as student to student interaction. The process of insuring this interac-
tion, and at the proper juncture for the student to make important connec-
tions, is the challenge of those who administrate over distance learning
telecourses..
     The importance of "interaction" in the telecourse design becomes a
vital element to be added to the instructional process. Feedback, as a
primary tool to facilitate interaction and ultimately dialectic communica-
tion, is ESSENTIAL for the student to remain interested and steered forward
for success. Many techniques for encouraging an interactional process can
be used. It then follows that these techniques must be continually re-
viewed, evaluated and improved. Several techniques include the following:
   
     * Mandatory orientation session to develop the lines of communication
     and comfort with the method of instruction. It also serves to rein-
     force the manner of interaction with the instructor via telephone.
   
     * Requiring phone check-in assignments at frequent intervals during
     the telecourse program. This allows students to overcome discomfort
     with the technique and allows the instructor to monitor progress.
   
     * Produce a live call-in program on cable television, for the students
     to pose questions to their instructor and to review important segments
     of the video/lecture portion of the class.
   
     * Schedule a weekly or periodic audio conference with the instructor.
     This serves the same purpose as the above, yet does not require its
     extent of time or technology.
   
     * Hold on-campus optional study sessions or individual student-inst-
     ructor meetings.
   
     * Develop and encourage student peer support by creating and fostering
     their contact and cooperation.
   
     * Instructor conducts spot phone checks to assist students who may be
     hesitant to initiate contact.
   
     Keeping the issue of separation of instructor and student in mind,
coupled with the tools and resources available to a telecourse developer or
instructor, the method of building interaction also involves a more
individualized interaction of the student with the subject being studied.
To develop deductive, hypothetical learning into the telecourse format, one
needs also to take a serious look at the design and overall organization of
the selected course. While the debate continues on whether critical
thinking skills are enhanced in more structured (e.g. Beyer, 1985; de Bono,
1985; Ruggerio, 1987; Sternberg, 1984) or non-structured (Paul, 1984 and
1987; Baer, 1988) classroom situations, it seems when instruction occurs
through telecourses, it may mean a more structured approach to the learning
process initially (Sachs, 1991). However, other opportunities for the
advanced student to explore other learning techniques must also be promoted
throughout the telecourse format.
     A project by three Virginia community colleges resulted in a set of
recommendations to overcome the problems posed by the separation of student
and instructor. This study suggests means of addressing four other areas
associated with the teaching of critical thinking, through a telecourse
format  (Sachs, 1991):
   
     1. the teaching of problem solving;
     2. the teaching of evaluating information;
     3. the teaching of decision making; and
     4. the implementation of shared responses among peers.
   
     In particular, it seems that Sachs (1991) is suggesting that in
teaching distance learners, there must be a written set of instructions or
objectives for students to work with. This not only helps to master the
content of the material, but simultaneously allows students to develop
their thinking skills. In the process of setting these objectives, students
should not feel that they need to "find" the correct answer for each
specific objective, but they can return to each question later in the
course, as their knowledge, and more critically, as their understanding of
material evolves.
     In recognizing that by the very nature of the telecourse design,
student contact is minimal, the role of didactic communication must be
minimized via the creative structuring and rethinking of how to present
course content.
   
   
Infusing Critical Thinking Skills During Development of a Telecourse in
General Psychology
   
     In articulating the traditional psychology course into a psychology
telecourse, it became apparent to the instructor that the telecourse needed
to be designed in a similar structure as the traditional course, specifi-
cally because of her pedagogic beliefs. When a standard chapter by chapter
sequence is used, it seems students perceive the material as separate,
factual and to be memorized, and subsequently, to be forgotten after
testing; the underlying concepts and applications are many times lost
(Ridgen, 1991). A case in point: In a traditional psychology course, if an
instructor presents a theory in one chapter, let's say, personality,
students generally become lost as to how it might apply to theories of
abnormal behavior.
     In an attempt to overcome such obstacles in concept building, the
instructor organized the telecourse syllabus and lectures with less chapter
boundaries. It would have been a contradiction of instructional method, if
the articulation had allowed for the organization of content to follow the
traditional mode. Consequently, the telecourse version was constructed with
limited chapter boundaries and incorporates sections of multiple chapters
(with similar themes) and an assortment of video presentations. The
objective here was to get students to actively organize parts of selected
chapters/videos and to think--analytically, comparatively, hypothetically
and critically. Even in an introductory course, the issue becomes one of
how to organize content with some level of depth in order to develop
critical thinking skills and applications.
     The syllabus for the telecourse is in many ways similar to the
traditional course syllabus. Their macro-goals which purport to critical
thinking tenets are the same. These include the student's understanding:
   
- of not only the theoretical perspectives of the discipline but also of
  the assumptions behind the theories and of their applications;
   
- the scientific nature of the discipline and how the methodologies are
  used in analyzing data;
   
- of the conclusions and inferences which can be drawn from psychological
  research and theories;
   
- of the changing nature of what is typically perceived as 'fact'.
   
     Ultimately, students should be able to use critical thinking skills
such as comparing, contrasting, questioning, applying knowledge from
various psychological theories and researching more advanced courses and in
their everyday life.
     There are also significant differences between the traditional course
and the telecourse syllabi. An additional unit to the telecourse was added
for students to make the same type of comparisons which would normally
result from the interactional process in the classroom. Moreover, there is
more structure to the telecourse syllabus by creating a student guide-book
which defines assignments and procedures, which the student should complete
prior to their examination. Each unit and subunit has objectives that
students are asked to answer both before and after they have read the text
and have viewed videos (see Sachs, 1991).
     According to Beaudoin (1990), such objectives are to be viewed as a
dialogue between the instructor and student and not as a directive. These
objectives then bridge the gap between classroom instruction and the
independent study of the telecourse. Because of the organization of the
course, the same or very similar objectives at times appear in later units,
with the expectation that students have a deeper level of understanding of
the psychological concepts. Finally, the study guide, which accompanies the
textbook, is mandatory for the telecourse. This supports the goal of
finding alternatives to help the telecourse student through the conceptual
thought process.
     In designing this telecourse, it was apparent that using a single
video series would probably not satisfy all the instructor's goals. One
important criterion in selecting a base of video materials, was in feeling
confident with the content and presentation of information. More succinct-
ly, it was how the designers of the video materials viewed their objectives
in their content presentation. Once the selection was made which seemed
related to traditional lecture content (Coast Telecourses), additional cut
and pasting of other video programs from a variety of media sources was
done to try to create the ideas also presented in the traditional class-
room. Included in this package of video materials are several original
presentation/lectures. Since the development of the telecourse, the in-
structor has brought several of these media sources to the traditional
lecture in order to amplify concepts presented through discourse.
     A last major issue was how students would be tested in the telecourse.
Because telecourse students ultimately don't have well delineated lectures,
the decision was made to combine a take-home essay component with an
on-campus multiple choice exam. The essay exams are created so that the
student needs to think about the content, and not just repeat so-called
"facts." As examples, they are asked to compare the assumptions of various
theories, or they are asked to apply several theories to an hypothetical
case. They have to submit the essay part when they take the in-class
portion. The multiple choice questions are designed to ask similar ques-
tions as the essay questions. Overall, the testing is fundamentally
designed for students to look at alternative solutions to various problems
and to develop the abstract, hypothetical reasoning expected in understand-
ing concepts (Sachs, 1991). Students are mailed their exam grades, usually
within a week of completing each exam. They are also informed during their
orientation, that they should discuss their performance on both exam parts
with the instructor, either over the phone or during office hours. By
scheduling these conferences feedback between the instructor and student is
supported.
   
   
Conclusion
   
     As an instructor, who truly believes that learning happens via
interaction, I now understand that interaction can take different forms:
It need not only occur in a traditional classroom setting. Rather, the way
in which information is organized, the kind of student one is working with,
and the openness for an unique challenge, both for the instructor and
student, allows for learning. While some may argue that using T.V. as a
means of learning, creates passivity in the learning process, the counter
argument is that using the media can help create active learners (Beaudoin,
1990). It is all contingent upon the structure of the situation: For the
instructor it means feeling comfortable with the content material, text,
and the selection of visuals; for the student it means that they will have
to take over the role of instructor--they will have to organize the visuals
with the text. How more active in one's learning can one become. Ultimate-
ly, I have as an educator, developed better ways of using visuals in the
classroom.
     In the process of designing and implementing a telecourse, the
instructor needs to become cognizant that her role changes; the instructor
is critical in the initial design (and revisions) of the course, but then
the primary role becomes that of a monitor and evaluator of these geo-
graphically distant learners. (Beaudoin, 1990) Undoubtedly, it is a
challenge.
     As new distance learning programs are being developed, we must
fundamentally begin by implementing critical thinking objectives from the
outset. Asking faculty to develop critical thinking into existing curricu-
lum can often be a losing proposition if they are unable to receive the
support needed to successfully do so, or see the incentive for doing so. On
the other hand, many institutions moving into and developing distance
learning programs offer training, support and incentive to encourage
faculty participation and to insure the outcome of high quality courses.
     Consequently, it can be highly beneficial to include critical thinking
as a basic component in the training for telecourse faculty and as a part
of the design process for these distance learning courses. That way, the
incentives, resources and ongoing encouragement can support both initiat-
ives and build towards their combined success.
   
   
References
   
Beaudoin, M. 1990. The instructor's changing role in distance education.
The American Journal of Distance Education. 4(2):21-29.
   
Brey, R. 1989. Telecourse Utilization Survey. A Research Project of the
Instructional Telecommunications Consortium of the American Association of
Community and Junior Colleges (AACJC).
   
Brey, R. and Grigsby, C. 1988. A Study of Telecourse Students. A Report
from the Annenberg/CPB Project.
   
Chickering, A.W. and Gamson, Z.F. 1987. Seven principles for good practice
in undergraduate education. The Wingspread Journal. 9(2):1-4.
   
Ehrman, M. 1990. Psychological factors and distance education. The American
Journal of Distance Education. 4(1):10-24.
   
Levine, T. 1988. Teaching Telecourses: Opportunities and Options. The
Annenberg/CPB Project and the Public Broadcasting Service.
   
Michael, W.B. and Knapp-Lee, L. 1985. Evaluating Learning in Telecourses.
Coastline Community College, Fountain Valley, CA.
   
Paul, R. 1984. Critical thinking-fundamental to education for a free
society. Educational Leadership. W. H. Freeman, New York.
   
Paul, R. 1987. Dialogical thinking: critical thought essential to the
acquisition of rational knowledge and passions. Teaching Thinking Skills.
W.H. Freeman, New York.
   
Rigden, J.S. and Jones, S. Point of view. The Chronicle of Higher Educa-
tion. March 27, 1991, Page A-52.
   
Ruggiero, V. 1987. Teaching Thinking Across the Curriculum. Harper and Row,
New York.
   
Sachs, S.G. 1991. Teaching thinking skills to distant learners. Tech
Trends. 36(1):28-32
   
Wade, C and Tavris, C. 1990. Learning to Think Critically. HarperCollins,
Publishers, Inc. New York.
   
------------------- End of DEOSNEWS Vol. 2  No. 6 ------------------------
   
   

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