DEOSNEWS Vol. 6 No. 5, ISSN 1062-9416.
Copyright 1996 DEOS.
Director of ACSDE and Editor of AJDE: Dr. Michael G. Moore.
DEOSNEWS Editor: Melody M. Thompson
 
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EDITORIAL
 
Earlier this month Dr. Connie Dillon of the University of Oklahoma
contacted me to see if I would be interested in publishing an
annotated bibliography that had been developed by graduate students
in one of her classes. Because we at the American Center for the
Study of Distance Education receive so many requests for research-
based information about specific aspects of distance education, I
viewed Dr. Dillon's inquiry as an opportunity to share these summaries
of current research with DEOSNEWS readers. The students'
original annotated bibliography covered six topics. Abridged
annotations of articles in the first two subject areas, Technology and
Instructional Design and Learning and Learners, are presented in this
issue of DEOSNEWS; future issues of DEOSNEWS may feature other
sections of this useful work.
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A Review of Distance Education Research: An Annotated
Bibliography Approach
 
by Sami Faddah
Dale Fike
Charlotte French
Dwight Fulcher
Simon Hsu
Linda Smith
Dennis Widen
 
INTRODUCTION
 
This annotated bibliography has been prepared with the hope that
researchers and practitioners in the field of Distance Education will
find here a useful review of articles that are currently appearing in
refereed journals. Our investigation of distance education literature
focused on the following topics: Technology and Instructional
Design; Learners and Learning; Learner Support; Faculty;
Administration and Organization; and Policy. Reviews of articles in
the first two areas are included here.
 
The methodology was developed from a Research and Theory class
led by Dr. Connie Dillon at the University of Oklahoma. Students
were master's and doctoral level students. A research critique guide
was developed in the class and students did literature searches on the
topics identified above.It is sincerely hoped that this material will
prove to be as useful and valuable to others as it proved to be to
those who presented their annotated bibliographies. Gratitude is
expressed to the authors of the articles which were reviewed; they
served as "instructors " in content and as a laboratory in research for
the class.
 
 
TOPIC 1: TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
 
 
ANDERSON, T. D. & GARRISON, D. R. (1995). Transactional
issues in distance education: The impact of design in audio
teleconferencing. The American Journal of Distance Education,
9(2), 27-45.
 
Research Questions/ Hypothesis: Students' perceptions of learning
in an audioteleconferencing context were studied to better
understand the influence of teacher-student and student-student
communication. Specific focus was on the development of a
community of inquiry and critical thinking ability. The study also
reviews the context in which audioteleconferencing is used to
discover variations in instructional design which influence students'
perceptions of learning.
 
Populations/Sample: Students in this study were enrolled in 24
classes (graduate, undergraduate, and credit diploma levels) at two
Canadian universities. The classes were scheduled, interactive,
synchronous, and delivered through audioteleconferencing, the most
common form of interactive distance delivery in Canada. Through
survey results, the students were described as mature, career
oriented, and with previous experience in education.
 
Research Design/Data Analysis: The study used quantitative
methodology (a mail survey)and qualitative methodologies
(teleconferencing observations, semi structured interviews, and a
focus group). The analysis of the survey data provided the basis for
developing interview questions and the basis for analyzing the
qualitative data gained.
 
Findings: Two different design models were discovered during the
study, with significant differences in perceptions of learning
between the two student groups. One model is the Community of
Learners (COL) and the other is the Independent Learning Support
model (ILS). Both models are described in the text of the study.
The COL students perceived the audio conference as supporting the
development of a community of inquiry while the ILS students had a
much lower perception of a similar type of community. The COL
group also indicated a greater perception of opportunity to be
involved in critical thinking. The COL group placed a higher value
on shared learning while ILS students placed a greater value in
independent studies Students were also asked to rate the
effectiveness of learning resources and student support components.
Results showed the perceptions of the effectiveness of learning
support and resources is very different in both groups. The design
of the instruction in the courses used in this study significantly
influenced students' perceptions of learning. The study suggests
that different designs produce different outcomes and that
instructional design must be matched to instructional purpose. Study
of instructional designs should be a focus of future research.
 
 
BURGE, ELIZABETH J. (1994). Learning in computer
conferenced contexts: The learner's perspective. Journal of Distance
Education, 9(1), 19-43.
 
Research Questions: 1) How do learners say that they learned? 2)
What, in their opinion, are the salient features of computer
conferencing? 3) What, if any, are the effects of those features on
their learning? 4) Do the students descriptions of how they learned
relate to learning strategies as found in cognitive psychology
literature?
 
Population/Sample:Two instructors and twenty-one of twenty-three
students participating in either of two 13 week courses taught using
computer conferencing (CC) technology formed the population of
the investigation. All students were part-time M.Ed. students; most
were teachers. Eight were new to computer conferencing, seven
were experiencing their second CC course, four their third course.
Three students, all experienced with CC, were enrolled in both
courses.
 
Research Design and Data Analysis:The author employed a
qualitative approach, conducting in depth interviews with both the
instructors and students before the course began and again after the
course was completed. Because of the lack of previous similar
studies, the author used the Tessmer and Jonassen (1988) taxonomy
of learning strategies to generate questions for both sets of
interviews. The two courses were dissimilar in content but were
similar in learning levels, with instruction focusing on application,
analysis, evaluation and synthesis of knowledge learned.
PARTICIPATE computer conferencing software was used for both
courses.
 
Findings:Findings were grouped into four categories: 1) process
requirements; 2) peer and instructor behaviors; 3) features; and 4)
strengths/weaknesses of CC. Analyses of pre- and post-course
interviews identified areas that students and instructors considered
vital to the success of CC course design. Aspects of topics such as
use of hard- and software, information processing, stress
management skills, peer participation and response to messaging,
discussion management, time (synchronous, asynchronous, and
temporal), information overload, self-imposed exclusion and
freedom to reflect on information were among those most often cited
in transcripts of interviews.
 
 
LAUZON, A.C. 1992. Integrating computer-based instruction
with computer conferencing: An evaluation of a model for
designing online education. The American Journal of Distance
Education 6(2):32-44.
 
Research Questions: The researchers were aware of a discrepancy
of approximately one grade between distance education students and
on-campus students in a course entitled "The Communication
Process," with the on-campus students achieving the higher grades.
The course instructor hypothesized that the difference was due to the
lack of interpersonal interaction for the correspondence students.
 
Population: Twenty of twenty-two students were evaluated on:
Attitudes toward Computers, Learning Online, and Ratings of
Course Components.
 
Research Design/Data Analysis: The data were collected by an
independent evaluator using telephone interviews. The instrument
the interviewer used was an adapted post-course questionnaire
developed at the New Jersey Institute of Technology utilizing a
seven-point Likert scale and Semantic Differential.
 
Findings: The summary of the findings, which were analyzed
through the calculation of percentages, means, and standard
deviations, are as follows. 1. Attitudes toward computers as a
result of course participation: 74% viewed computers more
positively. 21% reported no change; 5% viewed computers more
negatively; 2. Learning online: In general, students reported that
contact with other students enhanced their learning and made the
learning transaction more pleasant. They also found the other
students to be generally cooperative. The author concluded that this
study advanced the argument that approaches to education and
technology used are not mutually exclusive. This author also
believed that the study suggests that computer conferencing is an
excellent medium for allowing distance learners to interact in
meaningful ways.
 
 
LEBARON, JOHN F. & BRAGG, CHARLES A. (1994).
Practicing What We Preach: Creating Distance Education Models
to Prepare Teachers for the Twenty-first Century. The American
Journal of Distance Education 8(1). pp. 5-19.
 
Research Questions/Hypothesis:Can the present school/teacher-
education framework support future educational needs? If we are to
change this framework, how are we to go about achieving this goal?
What are some of the problems facing teacher education today? How
are we to prepare a new population of teachers to go out into the
twenty-first century work force? These questions and more were
dealt with in the course of this article. The hypothesis contends that
we can change these factors by implementing a diverse array of
solutions such as effective modeling for learning, promoting peer
interaction, encouraging self-direction, and providing on-going
guidance and support.
 
Population: This article was written about and for teachers and
teacher-educator groups. The discussion may also apply to the
researcher in the field of Distance Education, primarily, and other
related fields, generally.
 
Research Design and Data Analysis:Simulated "classroom"/training
sessions with distance-delivered technological capabilities were
introduced to a group of participating teachers. The main aim of this
project was to "promote student learning based on constructivist
assumptions and collaborative inquiry rather than to promote
technology use for its own sake" ( p. 10). The group was given six
day-long sessions in which they interacted over one-way satellite,
telephone, computer networking/conferencing, fax, and off-line
activities.
 
Findings:LeBaron & Bragg conclude that although this experiment
might have achieved the desired result on some levels, it was not
comprehensive enough to be a wide-ranging solution. They found
that the given technologies could provide both synchronous and
asynchronous communication, but the lack of human contact was a
main factor which could not be ignored. Aside from these factors,
the teachers seemed to do fine with the project.
 
 
TOPIC 2: LEARNERS AND LEARNING
 
 
BINER, P.M., BINK, M.L., HUFFMAN, M.L. & DEAN, R.S.
(1995). Personality characteristics differentiating and predicting the
achievement of televised-course students and traditional-course
students. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2):47-60
 
Research Questions: In what ways do personality traits differ
between traditional students and students in televised college level
courses? What specific personality traits are predictive of
achievement in televised courses?
 
Population: The sample was 449 students enrolled in 18 courses at a
large Midwestern university. Students in on-campus broadcast
classrooms consisted of 128 males, 127 females, with16 gender
unreported. The remote sites had 40 males, 123 females and 15
gender-unreported students. There were usually two to three remote
students at each site around the state. The average age of the
broadcast classroom students was 22.37. The remote site students
had a 36.16 average age.
 
Research Design/Data Analysis: The study was exploratory in
nature. All students in the study filled out the Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire (16PF) Form C. In addition, they were asked
to sign a waiver releasing their final grade to the researchers. Of the
449 students filling out the questionnaire, 164 telecourse students
and 200 broadcast classroom students signed the waiver. The 16PF
scores were converted to standardized-ten scores. Age and gender
were further investigated and no effects were found. Correlations
were done on 1st and 2nd order characteristics. A 2 X 16 Analysis
of Variance was conducted. Post hoc comparison t-tests were
conducted to identify some personality dimension differences.
 
Findings: The telecourse students scored significantly higher on four
personality factors: Intelligence (abstract-thinking), emotional
stability, trust, and compulsiveness (controlled). The Fisher LSD
comparison tests showed significant difference between groups on
the dependence and control factors.
 
 
DILLE, B. & MEZACK, M. (1991). Identifying predictors of high
risk among community college telecourse students. The American
Journal of Distance Education, 5 (1), 24-35.
 
Research Questions:The purpose of the study was to identify
predictors of high risk among telecourse students in a community
college. Research questions included: What type of student, in
terms of locus of control beliefs, enrolls in a telecourse? What type
of student, in terms of learning style, enrolls in a telecourse? What
type of telecourse student, in terms of locus of control beliefs, is
likely to be academically unsuccessful, i.e. a high risk telecourse
student? What type of telecourse student, in terms of learning style,
is likely to be academically unsuccessful, i.e. a high risk telecourse
student? What learning style is successful in the unique set up,
design, and learning activities of the typical telecourse? What locus
of control beliefs are successful in the unique set up, design, and
learning activities of the typical telecourse? What steps can the
community college take to reduce the comparatively high student
attrition rate in telecourses? Hypotheses are: 1. There is no
difference in locus of control beliefs between academically
successful students and unsuccessful students. 2. There is no
difference among the four types of learning styles in regard to
telecourse performance. 3. There is no difference between those
students attracted to a telecourse and those students who
successfully complete the telecourse.
 
Population/Sample: The sample was 188 telecourse students
enrolled in a southwestern community college in the Spring 1989
semester. The three instruments used in the study were completed
by 151 students, an 80.3% participation rate.
 
Research Design/Data Analysis: Three instruments were completed
by participants: a demographic survey, the RIELC, and the LSI.
Statistics used include ANOVA to test for differences in numerical
variables, a chi square test to test for significant differences among
categories, and a multiple regression to predict success of telecourse
students. Two dependent variables are letter grades in the telecourse
and success/non-success in the telecourse. Independent variables are
locus of control scores and learning style scores. Covariates include
selected demographic data.
 
Findings: All three null hypotheses were rejected. Seven variables
were found to be significant in predicting success or non-success in
a telecourse: the RIELC, the LSI score measuring Concrete
Experience, the score on the y axis of the Kill LSI, grade point
average, credit college hours completed, age, and marital status. The
authors provide the following profile of a high risk telecourse
student: " 25 years old or younger, divorced, with fewer than thirty
college credit hours completed, a GPA lower than 3.0-2.9, a higher
than average Rotter score (above 7.5), and a higher than average (25
or above) Concrete Experience score, a lower than average (below
5) AC-CE score".
 
EFFEH, ENO. (FALL/1991). Determinants of the study patterns
of female distant learners: An evaluative survey. Journal of
Distance Education 6(2). pp. 58-63.
 
Research question/hypothesis: How do factors such as maternal
responsibilities, family and home chores, and the inadequacy of
many homes as the major study base for the home-bound woman
affect the female distance learner? How does the female distance
learner contend with these factors?
 
Population/Sample: A group of eighty-four (n=84) adult, female
students who were participating in the Nigerian Certificate in
Education by Correspondence (N. C. E. cc) were selected to
conduct this study. Although it is not stated, we assume that the
sampling was random. Eighty-two percent of these women (n=69)
were married, of whom 96% (n=66) had children living at home. Of
the original 84, 11% (n=9) were single with no children at home,
2%(n=2) were either separated or divorced, and for 5% (n=4)
family status was unspecified. All students were practicing teachers
and most came from the primary school system.
 
Research Design and Data Analysis: Two approaches were used to
gather data regarding learners' daily study-times (Monday to
Friday):
 
1) Specific response approach, which required each participant to
state for each day: a) when individual private studies began, b)
when individual private studies ended, c) reasons for the choice of
the stated periods; and 2) Direct response approach, which required
each participant to indicate the total number of hours they spent
studying each day.
 
Findings: The researchers found that there were two periods of the
day when women were able to study (from 3 a.m. to 7 a.m. and 2
p.m. to 12 midnight.) A total of 109 responses were recorded in
this section of the questionnaire, out of which 26% (n=28) indicated
the morning session. Far more women were able to study in the
evenings (n=81 occurrences) as opposed to the morning sessions
(n=28 occurrences). The mean study time of the learners in the
morning was: 1 hr. 40 mins., whereas the evening learners had: 2
hrs. 12 mins. The mean daily figure was computed by taking the
mean of the morning session, the afternoon/evening session, and the
direct response mean of 2 hrs. 40 mins. (the mean of all means).
This daily mean comes out to 2 hours and 10 minutes, the figure
used as the daily study time for the female distant learners.
 
The controlled response section of the questionnaire resulted in the
following results, which refer specifically to the time at which the
survey responses were made: 1) 58% found "the house and
surroundings quiet" 2) 20% considered that the time when
"learning is best achieved" 3) 14% felt they were refreshed 4) 8%
had free time. Several women also listed some of the following
factors in the "free response" section: 1) Children disturbing their
mothers while they studied; 2) Noise from the neighbors; 3)
Inability to concentrate for long periods of time.
 
 
FIGUEROA, MARIA LUISA. (1992). Understanding students'
approaches to learning in university traditional and distance
education courses. Journal of Distance Education, 7(3), 15-26.
 
Research Questions: 1. What relations exist between students'
approaches and personal views on learning and a sample of their
learning activities? 2. In what ways do students from one population
(distance learning) differ from the other (face-to-face lecture
courses)?
 
Sample: Two groups of twenty students each, one group enrolled in
distance education courses and the other enrolled in traditional face-
to-face courses. Age range in DE courses was between 19-32; age
range in traditional courses was 18-26. Subjects ranged from
second to fourth year university students. After a brief description
of the study was distributed to a variety of classes, the subjects were
chosen from a pool of volunteers.
 
Research Design & Data Analysis: Three measuring techniques were
used in the study: a study approach questionnaire, an interview, and
a reading activity. All three techniques were applied to each member
of both subject groups in the order listed above. The purpose of the
three instruments was to "obtain a profile of each participant,
ranging from general to specific aspects of student learning"(p.18).
 
Findings:1. Distance education students were more interested in
their own learning than students enrolled in traditional courses.2.
Students in traditional courses were characterized as "less involved"
and exhibited more negative attitudes about their learning
environment.3. There were no significant differences in reading
achievement between the two groups.
 
ST. PIERRE, S. AND OLSEN, L.K. 1991. Student perspectives
on the effectiveness of correspondence instruction. The American
Journal of Distance Education 5(3): 65-71.
 
Hypotheses: 1) Students who receive constructive feedback from
their correspondence course instructors will experience significantly
more satisfaction with correspondence instruction than students who
do not receive such feedback; 2) Students who have the opportunity
to apply experiential learning and knowledge in a correspondence
course will experience significantly more satisfaction with
correspondence instruction than students not afforded that
opportunity; 3) Students who receive their corrected lessons
promptly, especially at the beginning of a course, will experience
more satisfaction than those who do not; 4) Students who feel
comfortable in engaging in didactic conversation with their
instructor will experience significantly more satisfaction with
correspondence study than students who do not feel comfortable
with this type of exchange;5) Students who find the pre-produced
correspondence course material accessible and understandable, and
the course content relevant to their needs and interests, will
experience significantly more satisfaction with correspondence study
than students who do not experience this;6) Students enrolled in
correspondence courses who interact with the correspondence study
personnel and the correspondence instructor will experience
significantly more satisfaction with correspondence study than
students not involved in such interactions;7) Students who
experience personal satisfaction with a correspondence course are
more likely to take another correspondence course than students not
experiencing this personal satisfaction
 
Population: A questionnaire was sent to 700 students randomly
selected. 337 students responded (140 male, 197 female); 54%were
single. Traditional students (18-24 years) made up 44%,while non-
traditional students (25+ years) were 55% of those responding.
Nearly 60% worked 40+ hours per week, and a large percentage
(62%) were pursuing undergraduate degrees.
 
Research Design/Data Analysis: A student perception questionnaire
was constructed and pilot-tested for the project. It was designed to
collect demographic data and information that could be used to test
the seven directional hypotheses already listed. Ten items were
identified and empirically derived. These items served as the student
satisfaction measure and as the dependent measure for the study.
Data analysis emphasized descriptive statistics, analysis of variances
(ANOVA), and regression analysis.
 
Findings: All seven directional hypotheses were supported at the.05
level of significance. Motivation was the single most important
factor related to student satisfaction. Other findings of interest were
that prompt return of lessons was more important at the beginning of
the course than later on in the course; didactic conversation with the
instructor contributes significantly to student satisfaction; students
who experience satisfaction with one course were more likely to take
a second course; and interaction between students and
correspondence study personnel was only minimally predictive of
student satisfaction.
 
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