Katherine I. Norman, California State University San Marcos

Joseph F. Keating, California State University San Marcos

 

            This paper includes two sections. In the first section, one author discusses the growth of the U.S. Hispanic population and the barriers faced by Hispanic students entering science and mathematics in our educational system. In the second section, the other author discusses the American Indian population and factors which affect the success of American Indians in science. Both authors emphasize the role of culture and obstacles faced by K-12 students when their culture conflicts with the majority culture.

Barriers for Hispanics Entering Science and Mathematics

by Katherine I. Norman

 

            Comparing beliefs of teachers and parents provides insight into cultural dilemmas faced by minority students in majority schools. Divergent convictions are illustrated with quotes from a Texas teacher and a Latino Parent:

From the teacher "The parents never come to school and they don't teach respect in the home. Why, the children won't even look me in the eye when I talk to them." From the parent "Respect is the most important thing is what I tell my kids. Don't make trouble, don't ask questions, and look down when the teacher talks to you." (Hodgkinson & Outtz, 1996).

            Hispanics demonstrate practices similar to many other "non-majority" groups. Showing respect for elders and authority figures by looking at the floor and being silent when in the presence of teachers is taught as proper etiquette by many minorities, and yet is considered a sign of disrespect by traditional white America.

            Other differences in the cultural values of Hispanics and "mainstream" America include the practice of "putting yourself forward." This is considered a step toward excellence by many Americans, but is not taught or even considered by Hispanics. Many of the differences and conflicting values end up being barriers for Hispanics, and prevent them from succeeding in their educational and career endeavors. The recent increase in the U.S. Hispanic population and barriers which prevent the Hispanic population from succeeding in science and mathematics are discussed in this section of the paper.

            The U.S. Bureau of the Census lists four racial categories (American Indian/Alaskan Native, Asian/Pacific Islander, Black and White), and only one ethnic group which is Hispanic. The Hispanic ethnic category exists only in this country. The term "Hispanic " was coined as a catch-all category to cover many national and regional groups. Hispanics may be of any race and are divided by geography, country of origin, class, group differences, and the time and circumstance of their entry into this country. "Hispanic" is the term normally used in the Eastern part of the U.S. "Latino" or "Chicano" is the preferred term in California, and "La Raza" is preferred by some and means from Mexico and Central America (Hodgkinson & Outtz, 1996).

            Hispanics usually think of themselves in relation to the county from which their ancestors came. The largest Hispanic groups in the U.S. are Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, and Central and South Americans. The U. S. Hispanic population is increasing rapidly, with Texas and California leading the nation in percentages of Hispanics. Between 1980 and 1990, the Hispanic population grew seven times as fast as the rest of the U.S. population, increasing by 53%. By the year 2010, the U.S. Hispanic population is expected to number 39.3 million, compared to the expected African American population of 40.4 million. By 2015, Hispanics are expected to outnumber African Americans 44 million to 43.1 million. The increase in the Hispanic population is due to several factors: a high birth rate (26/1000 women in 1993), substantial immigration over the past several decades, and the tendency of Hispanic females to marry and have children early.

            There are approximately 800,000 migrant farm workers in the U.S., 94% of whom are Hispanic and 80% of whom were born in Mexico. These Hispanics have the lowest graduate rate of any population in the U.S.; many leave school after the sixth grade. They spend little time discussing positive educational experiences with their children, primarily because they have had few such experiences. The life expectancy of a migrant worker is 49, compared to 75 for other citizens. Repeating cycles of ignorance, lack of self-respect, menial job skills, poor medical care, poverty and early pregnancies dominate migrant communities (Hodgkinson & Outtz, 1996).

            The educational pipeline for Hispanics is partially closed at the bottom where the youngest children enter, due to immigration, low family income, lack of parent education, limited English and job skills. Forty percent of Hispanics leave school before the spring of their sophomore year, and 56% of Hispanic adults are functionally illiterate. In 1989, only 16% of 18-24 year old Hispanic Americans were enrolled in college, and they continue to be vastly underrepresented in graduate programs. States with the highest drop-out rates for Hispanics include New York (62%), Texas (45%), and Illinois (47%) (Schuhmann, 1992).

            Barriers for Hispanics entering science and math are the same factors that cause their attrition from formal schooling. Many of these barriers can be traced to differences in their culture and in the majority American culture, and include (a) alienation of parents in the education process; (b) language; (c) income disparity and poverty (d) failure of the system to identify students in danger of dropping out; and (e) a shortage of role models in education as well as in the sciences and mathematics (Schuhmann, 1992).

            Hispanics are divergent thinkers, yet many of our educational practices (particularly traditional assessments) call for convergent thinking. The learning preferences of Hispanics have been ignored, and Hispanics have been expected to "fit in" with the majority. Hispanics have had to fight unspoken values, and many Hispanic students have faced negative preconceived expectations from society and teachers. With an increase in immigration, the need for bilingual instruction has increased while funding for bilingual education has decreased.

            The author conducted a pilot study in a Southern California high school, inquiring about Hispanic students' personal beliefs and family values related to success in science and mathematics studies and careers. Results indicated that ninth and tenth grade Hispanic students have received limited encouragement from family members and teachers to pursue careers in science and math. Hispanic students were asked why their peers do not enter science and math programs. Their answers included the following:

"Parents discourage them."

"Students discourage them."

"Teachers discourage them."

"Low self-esteem"

"Background"

"Some people don't like math or science because they get bad grades."

"Program evaluators base their opinions only on grades instead of the actual persons potential."

"Some kids don't even think about it so they don't even care. Some kids don't know when programs are up. Some don't even care."

"Their lack of interest and that they're lazy."

"Work"

"Intimidation of not knowing all the material."

"Laziness, wrong teachers, no motivation."

"People find it difficulty, boring. Financial trouble."

"It's the money."

            With all of the discouragement cited in the pilot study, the opportunity for Hispanics to enter science and math clearly seems restricted. Teacher education and parental education is necessary to provide opportunities for K-12 students to enter science and math programs. Other requirements for strong educational programs for Hispanics range from training in study skills to financial incentives and financial aid. Most importantly, students must be provided an environment that assures them they can succeed as scientists, mathematicians, and science/math educators. Mentors and role models are essential.

            Other necessities include K-college linkages, family involvement, a curriculum that reflects the student's culture, and assessment practices which reveal what students know. Linkages should be established in elementary, middle and high schools, as well as in two and four year colleges. Families should be involved in the educational process: parents must be personally invited to participate in school activities. The curriculum should reflect students' languages, as well as their cultural backgrounds and experiences. Alternative assessment measures should be created to determine aptitude and success in educational programs.

            Teachers need to develop and demonstrate an understanding of individual and group differences in learning styles and working habits. They should incorporate cultural elements into their teaching and pay attention to nonverbal communication, values, and communication patterns. Classroom management strategies must consider cultural, socioeconomic and linguistic factors. Instructional activities should be organized to build on ways in which students participate in discourse in their own cultures. Educators must recognize and honor the values and norms of the students' home cultures, and should recognize the legitimacy of and use the language of the students. Teachers and college faculty must be prepared to work with diverse students. Finally, students who can bring cultural understanding and sensitivities to teaching must be recruited into teacher preparation programs (Schuhmann, 1992). Only when our educational systems and programs provide for the strengths and needs of Hispanic students wil1 these students succeed in science and mathematics.

Factors that Affect the Success of American Indian High School Students in Science by Joseph F. Keating

 

            American Indian high school students like many other minorities have generally performed poorly in science courses, taken fewer higher level courses and scored below average on tests of science understanding. Few have chosen to go on to higher education in science and therefore are also very underrepresented in science careers (Barba, 1994). In light of these and other similar statistics, it is essential that science educators assume responsibility and leadership in the effort to overcome the lack of success among students from diverse backgrounds like American Indians. One of the major themes of national reform efforts in science has been the democratic goal of raising the general science literacy of all Americans (Rutherford and Ahlgren, 1990). Identifying and focusing on appropriate science curricula and strategies that deliver effective science instruction for multicultural populations like American Indians should be an essential part of this goal. An important outcome of effective science preparation might be that scientifically prepared American Indian students could assume leadership roles on their reservations and in their communities in a variety of science related fields including medicine, the environment, education and technology.

            This section will include specific factors that research results indicate may influence the success of American Indian high school students in science. These research results were based primarily on two studies on Navajo high school students conducted by the author:

1. an experimental study that compared student success in a traditional Biology course with one which infused tribal cultural components into the curriculum and strategies (Keating, 1996).

2. a correlation dissertation study that investigated a number of factors that might affect success of Navajo students in science (Keating, 1992).

            These considerations are based broadly on these and other research studies, as well as extensive personal experience working with Ameriean Indian students (Keating, 1992; Keating, 1996 and Killaekey, 1989). In addition to these findings, there are also corresponding implications for educators which will also be discussed.

            Although there are obviously multiple factors that affect everyone's sueeess in an aeademie setting, this discussion focuses on three broad influences that impact Ameriean Indian students: (a) the degree of traditionalism of the individual student; (b) the school environment including backgrounds of the teachers, strategies and eurrieula utilized; and (e) the soeio-eeonomie background of the students including per capita income, family educational background and general home environment.

            American Indian languages have little or no correspondence to the technical language of science. American Indian students' native languages may often have conflicts with English in semantic, syntaetie and graphie-phonie components which make effective use of seientifie terminology and eoneepts more diffieult. For example there are no corresponding words in Navajo for photosynthesis or inertia. Research results indicated that Navajo students achieve less and have lower positive attitudes in those science classes where teachers fail to recognize this and consequently do not make appropriate adaptations. The implication is that teachers who utilize strategies that link science terminology to native language will have more success with their students. Examples of some strategies used by teachers in more successful classrooms (i.e. where their students demonstrated greater success in science achievement and positive attitudes) were use of the four square model, visual aides and dual dictionaries and attendance at Navajo language courses. The four square model utilizes a poster format with four equal squares---one square has the English word, a second a hyphenated corresponding native language word, a third has an illustration of the term and the fourth a definition and (or) examples. Visuals include the use of posters, slides, video tapes, computer software or realia. Teachers who take at least some course work in Navajo (or other American Indian language) will learn to appreciate the differences between the languages and be more likely to make appropriate adaptations in their own classes (Keating, 1992).

            Cultural taboos may cause conflict between some of the materials or concepts used in science . In the Navajo culture for example, dissection of frogs and some other animals is considered a taboo whose violation may result in severe consequences that only very elaborate ceremonials can offset. The presence of and (or) touching bones and other remains from humans and certain animals is also a serious taboo with serious consequences. There are also many others which have direct implications for the teaching of science (Keating, 1992; Bulow, 1972). The implication of this cultural tradition is that science teachers need to become familiar with common taboos through reading, cultural training and direct interaction with the community so that they may seek ways to modify, adapt or circumvent those situations which might present a conflict for their students. Examples of adaptations utilized by teachers in more successful classrooms included use of computer software for dissections, avoidance of topics related to taboos substituting equivalent but different concepts.

            Behavioral expectations of teachers (non-Indian) for their students can cause conflict in the classroom. For example, in the Navajo tradition the role of the student is as a listener not an active, vocal participant. This is based on the cultural mores that a student respects the teacher by listening, not asking questions or responding as many non-Navajo teachers would expect from their students (Rhodes, 1988; Keating, 1992). Also, the common English response 'thank-you' is traditionally infrequently given probably due to the fact that the Navajo word for 'thank-you' (ahethee') is reserved only for extenuating situations. Appreciation for assistance, is however, often given in other less direct ways such as a small gift or invitation to dinner. The same considerations and implications that applied to taboos would apply to gaining an understanding of these types of cultural behavioral differences. Teachers who understood these and made appropriate modifications in their own personal responses to traditional American Indian behaviors tended to have more successful science classrooms.

            The importance of reaching out to understand language and cultural differences cannot be over-emphasized. The research studies support the idea that students tend to respect and have greater rapport with those teachers who demonstrate this sensitivity, ultimately resulting in greater achievement and positive attitudes in science.

            Typical teaching styles observed on reservation high schools include a heavy emphasis on strategies such as direct instruction (lecture), use of textbooks as the primary source for information, individualized seat work and standardized short answer assessments. Although all of these more traditional strategies have some value in science instruction, an overemphasis appears to creates a mismatch with the typical learning styles of American Indians as well as for science students in general. For example, the research results lend support for the value of using a variety of strategies with some, in particular, being especially effective. More successful Navajo science students, as measured by increased problem solving, greater positive attitudes and similar content achievement (compared to teachers using more traditional strategies) tended to be in classrooms where teachers placed an emphasis on a variety of strategies. The most successful ones included these particular strategies: cooperative learning, field trips, computer simulations, hands-on activities, group projects and authentic forms of assessment (portfolio, journals and performance exams) (Keating, 1992, 1996 and Killackey, 1988).

            It is interesting that all of these correspond to traditional American Indian learning and teaching. For example, American Indians traditionally learned in smal1 groups by practicing a task over and over until it was mastered and then demonstrating this to the elder (application of cooperative groups and performance exams). Also, holistic concepts are integrated throughout the learning experience, such as, individual success is devalued compared to the importance of success of the group (group projects); the connection of learning in a natural setting as compared to a classroom (use of field trips) (Rhodes, 1988). The implications of this is that teachers should be trained in the theory and practice of these innovative strategies and encouraged to apply them in their science teaching.

            Typical science curricula stress topics or individuals that make few connections to American Indians. Results from research that evaluated curricula that incorporated tribal science showed increases in self esteem and attitudes (Killackey, 1988) as well as problem solving, choice of courses and careers (science) (Keating, 1996; Keating, 1997)). In these studies tribal resources, materials and philosophy were connected to westem science concepts. In this bicultural approach students used the tribal cultural contexts as a way to learn western science. Examples of topics used included the use of ethnobotany, archeoastronomy, animal husbandry and architecture. Tribal elders, parents and medicine-men were used as resources to teach students and assist and train teachers and served as appropriate science role models. Alternative texts and supplementary resources were also used (Killackey, 1989; Keating, l99S; Mayes and Lacey, 1989).

            The important implication for science teachers is that it is crucial for them to seek curricular ideas and role models from their students. The teacher must become an active learner himself (herself) and be open to drawing a typically hesitant community and its resources into becoming an active participant in the instructional team. In this role it is important that the teacher is patient, humble and flexible in order to facilitate this change in the curricula

            Most of the science teachers that teach American Indians are non-Indian and lack formal or informal training in the culture of their students and the appropriate pedagogy to teach science to them. Ninety-eight percent of high school science teachers on reservations schools are non-Indian. This does not preclude effective science teaching. However, if there were more American Indian teachers they could assist the non-Indian teachers in overcoming some of the cultural conflicts discussed earlier. There is some evidence that American Indian students respond better in classes taught by American Indian teachers (Keating, 1991).

            Because of the many conflicts that science as taught presents to the traditional American Indian student few choose science or science teaching as a career. This is starting to change as colleges and universities offer teacher training programs which emphasize the culture as a strength for learning. For example, Navajo Community College's Dine Philosophy of Learning or DPL attempts to incorporate elements of Navajo culture into all of the mainstream courses it offers. In addition, the college requires that all of its degrees including pre-service teaching include coursework in Navajo cultural studies as well as written and spoken Navajo. Many of these courses are also being taken by non-Navajo teachers at convenient satellite centers around the reservation. The University of New Mexico is offering an undergraduate education degree in Gallup, New Mexico which makes appropriate cultural connections. Because it is offered at convenient times this program is increasing immensely the number of Navajo teachers--some of whom will teach science. Using this as a model, other tribes should be encouraging educational institutes to provide opportunities for both inservice and preservice teachers to train in both appropriate cultural and pedagogical aspects of teaching.

            American Indians typically live well below the poverty level--a factor which has an effect on al1 people regardless of ethnic, racial or cultural background. Low per capita income levels were found among the Navajo where 67% of families are below the poverty level and unemployment averages 40% (Keating, 1992). Many families do not have running water or electricity and also lack sufficient funds to provide proper nutrition for their children who typically have to spend many hours a week on buses. All of these are obvious impediments for students to function effectively in schools. Results from one of the studies indicated a strong association between family income and success in science achievement and attitudes. Although schools and individual teachers cannot solve all of these socio-economic ills they can assist in lessening effects of this economic gap. For example a few reservation schools have opened science labs, computer rooms, libraries and gymnasiums after school hours. They have provided resource people to assist parents and students in a variety of educational and health related activities. Some have also offered enrichment programs in science such as MESA (Minority Engineering and Science Association), the Odyssey of the Mind, Science Fair and Science Olympiad, which provide science experiences not normally available during the school day. To facilitate these after school functions, the schools have provided activity buses to transport students home----much like those previously offered only to athletes. Only a few schools are doing this, but these enlightened schools, administrators and teachers are to be commended and should serve as models to others. Without programs like these, few of these students would have access at home to books, computers, televisions, phones and other school resources.

            Alcoholism on reservations results in a fairly large population of children with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE), both of which impact educational performance. Some estimates have been as high as 15-25% for the number of children born on the Navajo reservation with FAS or FAE. Since both produce effects that cause a variety of learning disorders it is important for science teachers to address the issues of alcohol abuse and its biological effects on developing fetuses within their curricula. Public health hospitals, individual doctors and tribal officials involved with drug and alcohol abuse are all good resources for the science teacher. The science teacher using appropriate strategies to present this topic can have an effect on student perception of the use and abuse of alcohol and perhaps make their students more cognizant of the dangers thereby ultimately reducing the number of FAS and FAE students in their own classrooms.

            Most American Indian students from this present generation are the first in their families to seek a higher degree. Research results found that few of the parents in the study had higher education degrees with a fairly high percent not having completed high school (Keating, 1992). Only about 5% of Navajo students entering college complete a four year degree within six years with very few of these in a science or technology f~eld (Willeto, 1991). This is compared to the national average rate of completion of about 50%. It is therefore vital that high schools encourage the parents to take an active role in the education of their sons and daughters. Encouragement and support from home is the number one predictor of success in College among American Indian students (Willetto, 1991). Schools and individual teachers can play an active role in this process. As discussed earlier the American Indian community can play a tremendous role in the curriculum as a resource for the teachers. This can also play a dual role of drawing parents and individuals to the school and making them feel welcome in this setting. Other formats in which parents were encouraged and become involved in the (science) education of their children included as coach/advisors in the Odyssey of the Mind program--an international, interdisciplinary problem solving program and as mentors/judges in science fair competitions. Another science related program which encourages parents to become actively involved within the school include Math, Science and Beyond ---a family hands-on science and math evening program (Solana Beach Elementary School District, 1990).

            It is suggested that there is a much greater potential for American Indian students success in science when their parents are presented with opportunities that welcome and encourage them to become actively involved with the schools through collaborative teaching, mentorships and participation m science programs.

            Based on research results and personal experiences in teaching American Indian (especially Navajo's) it was concluded that a variety of factors have an effect on the success of high school students. These factors were categorized into three major areas: (a) the degree of traditionalism of the individual student; (b) the school environment; and (c) the socio-economic background of the students.

            Impediments to success in each area were noted with corresponding implications and suggested recommendations for science teachers and their schools. It was suggested that the tremendous cultural wealth of American Indians could be strongly linked to high school science programs as a resource. Using a bicultural linkage of the curriculum to the community will provide a basis of support and encouragement for the students attending these schools increasing the potential for success in science.

            It is critical that the science education of American Indian students be improved. Tribes need members that include those that are science literate, as well as active, knowledgeable participants in science leadership roles as they continue to grow in the areas of technology, the environment, medicine and other science related areas.

            Schools and the American Indian communities should consider some of these suggested recommendations and based on their own perceived needs, develop site based plans that attempt to incorporate some of the ideas.

            There are many common barriers faced by Hispanic and American Indian students entering science and mathematics. These are often created by conflicts between the traditional culture of the these students and the methods typically used in teaching in K-12 science and mathematics.

            Examples of common barriers to their success and potential career opportunities include language impediments to the learning of the technical language of science and mathematics, cultural taboos related to specific scientific activities, income disparity and poverty, and a shortage of mentors and role models in education as well as in the sciences and mathematics. Because of these and other related factors, young Hispanic and American Indian students have had a common absence of positive experiences and successes in science and mathematics at the early grade levels that has resulted in a correspondingly negative attitude about these fields. In addition, many Hispanics and American Indian students have not received encouragement or opportunities to excel in traditional science and mathematics careers.

            Hispanic and American Indian parents and their extended families, many of whom have had similar negative experiences in schools, have consequently had limited involvement in the education process, and almost no involvement in science and mathematics. All of this has contributed to teacher expectations that have been less than positive with regard to the success of these students in science and mathematics classrooms. This lack of support from parents, communities, and educational systems makes it unfeasible for most Hispanics and American Indians to even consider pursuing further education and careers in science and mathematics.

            We recommend that teachers develop a knowledge base about the various cultures (including languages) of their students, and incorporate this cultural knowledge into their teaching strategies and curriculum. It is essential for teachers to understand the cultural traditions of their students, especially in areas that may cause students to have restricted positive experiences in science and mathematics. It is also important for teachers to have an appreciation of the learning styles and strengths of their students, particularly those whose backgrounds differ from the mainstream. In light of this, teachers should closely monitor their own spoken and unspoken expectations of Hispanic and American Indian students with regard to success in science and mathematics, and they should extend their own education and understandings so that they may meet the needs of and encourage all students in traditional fields of study.

            In addition to the role of the teacher and school in increasing success of these students in science and mathematics, the parents and the community need to be invited to participate in K-12 science and mathematics curriculum, events and studies. This enriched curriculum will then be reflective of the students' experiences, culture and language, and the corresponding assessment practices will be appropriately linked to contexts within the culture providing a greater potential for successfully revealing what students do not know.

            Science and mathematics teacher educators have an important role in this whole process in that they must be knowledgeable about the various cultures that make up American society, and must incorporate and model multicultural education strategies into their own teaching. To accomplish this, they should be at the forefront and be familiar with the research on multicultural science and mathematics education so that they can effectively teach preservice and inservice teachers how to infuse cultural knowledge and practices into K-12 science and mathematics instruction.

References

Barba, R. (1994). Science in the Multicultural Classroom--a Guide to Teaching and Leaming. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bulow, E. (1972). Navajo Taboos. Gallup, NM: Buffalo Medicine Books.

Hodgkinson, H. & Outtz, J. (1996). Hispanic Americans: A Look Back. A Look Ahead. Institute for Educational Leadership, IncdCenter for Demographic Policy.

Killackey, A. (1988). World Outdoor Life Sciences: Teacher's Guide. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University—The Learning Center.

Killackey, A. (1989). Affective Results of a Bicultural science Curricula with American Indian Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico.

Keating, J. (1991). Personal interviews with American Indian science teachers in April 1991 at Arizona and New Mexico high schools.

Keating, J. (1992). Factors that Affect the Success of Navajo High School Students in Science. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico.

Keating, J. (1995). A bicultural approach to teaching science to American Indian students. Califomia Science Teachers Association Journal. June.

Keating, J. (1996). Effectiveness of an experimental biology course that utilizes cultural components to teach science. Unpublished manuscript.

Keating, J. (1997). Harvesting cultural knowledge---using ethnobotany to reap the benefits of ethnic diversity in the classroom. The Science Teacher. 62(2), 22-25.

Mayes, V. and Lacy, B. (1989). Nanise'--A Navajo Herbal. Tsailie, AZ.: Navajo C.C. Press.

Rhodes, R. (1988). Holistic teaching and learning for native american students. Journal of American Indian Education. 27. 21-29.

Rutherford, F.J. and Ahlgren, A. Science for All Americans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schuhmann, A. (1992). Learning to teach Hispanic students. In M. Dilworth's (Ed.) Diversity in Teacher Education-New Expectations. New York: Josey Bass.

Solana Beach School District. (1990). Math, Science and Beyond--hands-on kits to encourage family involvement in science and math. Solana Beach, CA.: Division of Books and Beyond.

Willeto, A. (1991). Barriers to Navajo Student Success in College. Unpublished Master's thesis. University of North Carolina.

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Date of last revision/update : Nov 12, 1997